Brocchi,Darwin, and Transmutation: Phylogenetics and Paleontology at the Dawn of Evolutionary Biology

Giambattista Brocchi’s (1814) monograph (see Dominici, Evo Edu Outreach, this issue, 2010) on the Tertiary fossils of the Subappenines in Italy—and their relation to the living molluscan fauna—contains a theoretical, transmutational perspective (“Brocchian transmutation”). Unlike Lamarck (1809), Brocchi saw species as discrete and fundamentally stable entities. Explicitly analogizing the births and deaths of species with those of individual organisms (“Brocchi’s analogy”), Brocchi proposed that species have inherent longevities, eventually dying of old age unless driven to extinction by external forces. As for individuals, births and deaths of species are understood to have natural causes; sequences of births and deaths of species produce genealogical lineages of descent, and faunas become increasingly modernized through time. Brocchi calculated that over 50% of his fossil species are still alive in the modern fauna. Brocchi’s work was reviewed by Horner (1816) in Edinburgh. Brocchi’s influence as a transmutational thinker is clear in Jameson’s (1827) “geological illustrations” in his fifth edition of his translation of Cuvier’s Theory of the Earth (read by his student Charles Darwin) and in the anonymous essays of 1826 and 1827 published in the Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal—which also carried a notice of Brocchi’s death in 1827. The notion that new species replace older, extinct ones—in what today would be called an explicitly phylogenetic context—permeates these essays. Herschel’s (1830) discussion of temporal replacement of species and the modernization of faunas closely mirrors these prior discussions. His book, dedicated to the search for natural causes of natural phenomena, was read by Charles Darwin while a student at Cambridge. Darwin’s work on HMS Beagle was in large measure an exploration of replacement patterns of “allied forms” of endemic species in time and in space. His earliest discussions of transmutation, in his essay February 1835, as well as the Red Notebook and the early pages of Notebook B (the latter two written in 1837 back in England), contain Brocchi’s analogy, including the idea of inherent species longevities. Darwin’s first theory of the origin of species was explicitly saltational, invoking geographic isolation as the main cause of the abrupt appearance of new species. We conclude that Darwin was testing the predicted patterns of both Brocchian and Lamarckian transmutation as early as 1832 at the outset of his work on the Beagle.     

Unearthening Old Data: Darwin was Indeed Correct About Earthworm Behavior

Charles Darwin is well known for his studies on the expression of emotions in animals and humans and as founding father of the concept of sexual selection. Yet it is commonly believed that the various arguments Darwin developed about behavior were usually illustrated only by anecdotes and observations recounted by explorers, naturalists, or zookeepers, and lacking any experimental approach. Here we show that this is not true. In his last book, The Formation of Vegetable Mould Through the Action of Worms (1881), Darwin mentions a series of meticulous experiments he ran to test his hypotheses about why earthworms plug their burrows and comes to the conclusion that earthworms seem to act in an intelligent way. His study can still function as a prime example of how to design an experiment for testing hypotheses. Only one part was missing in Darwin’s research: statistical analyses. We retrieved his data and analyzed them statistically. Based on these results, we cannot reject his conclusion as the statistical analyses confirmed Darwin was right. This shows that Charles Darwin already used a hypothetico-deductive approach, and he can thus be seen as the first true behavioral ecologist—a representative of a discipline that has been recognized for only about a hundred years.     

From metabolism to comparative biochemistry of toxic organophosphorus compounds

The main stages of scientific biography of Professor Viktor Iosifovich Rozengart are exposed: his works on muscle bioenergetics, discovery of the pathway of synthesis of creatinine, his development of new concepts of pathways of metabolism of organophosphorus xenobiotics, creation of biochemical grounds of selective toxicity as well as studies in the new field, of which he was one of founders,—comparative biochemistry of toxic organophosphorus compounds.     

The role of experimental entomology in working out fundamental problems of physiology and medicine (L.A. Orbeli and experimental entomology)

This paper is based on the author’s lecture presented at the conference Theoretical and Applied Entomology: Past, Present and Future, dedicated to the 150th anniversary of the Russian Entomological Society, which took place on April 2, 2009 in St. Petersburg. The lecture suggested a definition of the concept “experimental entomology” and listed the most popular research objects. A brief historical review of the origin and development of some trends in experimental entomology in the XX and XXI centuries in Russia was given. Special attention was paid to the contribution of Acad. L.A. Orbeli and his ideas concerning evolution of functions and functional evolution as well as to the importance of ideas of his collaborators and followers, G.V. Gershuni, L.G. Leibson and A.L. Polenov, in developing a number of present directions of experimental entomology. These classic and ultramodern directions include comparative genetics of behavior (M.E. Lobashev, A.K. Voskresenskaya, N.G. Lopatina, I.A. Nikitina, V.B. Savvateev, V.V. Ponomarenko, N.G. Kamyshev), genetics of higher nervous activity (N.G. Lopatina), neurogenetics (E.V. Savvateeva-Popova), biorhythmology (ecological concept of photoperiodism—A.S. Danilevsky, investigation of the physiological mechanisms of photoperiodic adaptations—V.P. Tyshchenko), immunology (S.I. Chernysh), neuroendocrinology and mechanisms of stress (I.Yu. Raushenbach, S.I. Chernysh, G.V. Ben’kovskaya), psychoneuroendocrinology (the hypothesis of “dynamic neuroendocrine integration”—A.N. Knyazev), etc. A special place in the lecture was assigned to sensory physiology of insects and, first of all, to the series of monographs by F.G. Gribakin, Yu.A. Elizarov, G.A. Mazokhin-Porshnyakov, R.D. Zhantiev, A.V. Popov, V.L. Svidersky, A.V. Skirkyavichus, L.I. Frantsevich awarded the USSR State Prize in 1987. The origin of a novel field, cognitive ethology (Zh.I. Reznikova) that emerged at the intersection of ethology, ecology, theory of evolution, and comparative psychology is noted in the final part of the lecture.     

Darwin’s contributions to genetics

Darwin’s contributions to evolutionary biology are well known, but his contributions to genetics are much less known. His main contribution was the collection of a tremendous amount of genetic data, and an attempt to provide a theoretical framework for its interpretation. Darwin clearly described almost all genetic phenomena of fundamental importance, such as prepotency (Mendelian inheritance), bud variation (mutation), heterosis, reversion (atavism), graft hybridization (Michurinian inheritance), sex-limited inheritance, the direct action of the male element on the female (xenia and telegony), the effect of use and disuse, the inheritance of acquired characters (Lamarckian inheritance), and many other observations pertaining to variation, heredity and development. To explain all these observations, Darwin formulated a developmental theory of heredity — Pangenesis — which not only greatly influenced many subsequent theories, but also is supported by recent evidence.     

David Ottoson (1918-2001)

View larger version (86K): [in this window] [in a new window]   David Ottoson. Photograph © IBRO.   A master in our field of sensory physiology has passed awayafter a short, but painful illness. He left his wife Inger anddaughter Gabrielle Ahlberg. David Ottoson was born and spent his childhood in Chalgan, China,where his parents were missionaries. David first studied odontology,then medicine, and started his scientific career in 1952 asa research assistant at the Department of Physiology at KarolinskaInstitutet, Stockholm. His thesis `Analysis of the electrical     

The phenology of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Rubus fruticosus</Emphasis> in Ireland: herbarium specimens provide evidence for the response of phenophases to temperature,with implications for climate warming

To date, phenological research has provided evidence that climate warming is impacting both animals and plants, evidenced by the altered timing of phenophases. Much of the evidence supporting these findings has been provided by analysis of historic records and present-day fieldwork; herbaria have been identified recently as an alternative source of phenological data. Here, we used Rubus specimens to evaluate herbaria as potential sources of phenological data for use in climate change research and to develop the methodology for using herbaria specimens in phenological studies. Data relevant to phenology (collection date) were recorded from the information cards of over 600 herbarium specimens at Ireland’s National Herbarium in Dublin. Each specimen was assigned a score (0–5) corresponding to its phenophase. Temperature data for the study period (1852 – 2007) were obtained from the University of East Anglia’s Climate Research Unit (CRU); relationships between temperature and the dates of first flower, full flower, first fruit and full fruit were assessed using weighted linear regression. Of the five species of Rubus examined in this study, specimens of only one (R. fruticosus) were sufficiently abundant to yield statistically significant relationships with temperature. The results revealed a trend towards earlier dates of first flower, full flower and first fruit phenophases with increasing temperature. Through its multi-phenophase approach, this research serves to extend the most recent work—which validated the use of herbaria through use of a single phenophase—to confirm herbarium-based research as a robust methodology for use in future phenological studies.     

The Case of Heinrich Wilhelm Poll (1877–1939): A German-Jewish Geneticist, Eugenicist, Twin Researcher, and Victim of the Nazis

This paper uses a reconstruction of the life and career of Heinrich Poll as a window into developments and professional relationships in the biological sciences in Germany in the period from the beginning of the twentieth century to the Nazi seizure of power in 1933. Poll’s intellectual work involved an early transition from morphometric physical anthropology to comparative evolutionary studies, and also found expression in twin research – a field in which he was an acknowledged early pioneer. His advocacy of eugenics led to participation in state-sponsored committees convened to advise on social policy, one of which debated sterilisation and made recommendations that led eventually to the establishment of the notorious Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Anthropology, Human Heredity and Eugenics. However, his status as a prominent geneticist and, in particular, as a eugenicist had an ironic and ultimately tragic dimension. Heinrich Poll was of Jewish birth, and this resulted in his career being destroyed by an application of the population policies he had helped put in place.     

Diet of red-breasted flycatcher and Siberian tit nestlings in Central Yakutia

Results of comparative analysis of food selectivity patterns for two ecologically close hollow-nesting birds—red-breasted flycatcher Ficedula parva (Muscicapidae) and Siberian tit Parus cinctus (Paridae)—according to the way of catching, the place of foraging and the daily activity in nestling feeding are considered.     

Jonathon Howard.

Jonathon 'Joe' Howard (Fig. 1) is Group Leader and Director at the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics; he and his research group moved to Dresden, Germany, in July 2001. Howard received his PhD in neurobiology in 1983 from the Australian National University in Canberra. He did postdoctoral research there and also at the University of Bristol, UK, and at the University of California, San Francisco. In 1989, he joined the faculty at the University of Washington. His book "Mechanics of Motor Proteins and the Cytoskeleton" was published earlier this year. [interview by Mari N. Jensen]     

God’s punishment and public goods

Cooperation towards public goods relies on credible threats of punishment to deter cheats. However, punishing is costly, so it remains unclear who incurred the costs of enforcement in our evolutionary past. Theoretical work suggests that human cooperation may be promoted if people believe in supernatural punishment for moral transgressions. This theory is supported by new work in cognitive psychology and by anecdotal ethnographic evidence, but formal quantitative tests remain to be done. Using data from 186 societies around the globe, I test whether the likelihood of supernatural punishment—indexed by the importance of moralizing “high gods”—is associated with cooperation. Dominic Johnson is a fellow in the Princeton University Society of Fellows. He holds a D.Phil. in biology from Oxford University and a Ph.D. in political science from Geneva University. His research revolves around the evolutionary biology of human behavior and how this impacts on conflict, cooperation, politics, and religion. His recent book, Overconfidence and War: The Havoc and Glory of Positive Illusions, was published in 2004 by Harvard University Press.     

Chiral mutagens: Cytogenetic effects on higher plants

The cytogenetic activity of chiral nitrosoalkilureas and their effect on winter soft wheat chromosomes (Triticum aestivum L.) have been investigated. A comparative analysis of the cytogenetic activity of the chiral nitrosoalkilureas—S(+)1-N-nitroso-1-N-methyl-3-N-sec-buthylurea (S(+)NMsBU) and R(−)-1-N-nitroso-1-N-methyl-3-N-sec-buthylurea (R(−)NMsBU)—on higher plants has been performed for the first time. According to the frequency of chromosome aberrations, stereoisomers S(+) are twice more active than stereoisomers R(−). In addition to the typical anaphase aberrations (fragments, bridges, and lagging chromosomes), other numerous mitosis pathologies have been found: C-mitosis, chromosome hyperspiralization and despiralization, unequal chromosome allocation between daughter nuclei, three-pole mitosis, etc. Such pathologies have not been found when treating with nitrosoethylurea and gamma rays.     

The epiphytic communities of various ecological types of aquatic vegetation of five pastoral ponds

Five small water bodies located within the agricultural region of Wielkopolska (west Poland) underwent investigation. Periphyton samples were collected from various macrophyte habitats representing rush vegetation (in five water bodies), submerged aquatic plants (in three) and nymphaeids (in one): Palędzie — Ceratophyllum demersum, Potamogeton crispus, Typha latifolia; Batorowo — Phragmites australis; Piotrowo — Potamogeton natans, Ceratophyllum submersum, Typha latifolia; Tarnowo Podgórne — Typha latifolia; Dąbrówka — Zannichellia palustris, Potamogeton pectinatus, Phragmites australis. The main goal of the study was to determine the composition and abundance of the periphytic communities inhabiting various types of rush and water vegetation of five water bodies located within a mid-field landscape area. Diatoms such as Achnanthidium minutissimum, Amphora ovalis, Cocconeis placentula orNavicula cincta revealed significantly higher densities in the zone of elodeids, while green algae prevailed among nymphaeids. As a result of this study it was found that the epiphytic algae were characterised by much lower diversity in respect to a specific water body, though much greater diversity was observed in its relation to the type of substratum. Two types of habitats were distinguished — the first of simple build (helophytes and nympheids) and the second containing the complicated architecture of plant stems (elodeids).     

New RAPD markers of tomato spotted wilt virus (TSWV) resistance in Lycopersicon esculentum Mill

The selection of TSWV resistant individuals can be facilitated by molecular markers. RAPD analysis was carried out on three forms (Stevens × Rodade — resistant; Rey de los Tempranos — moderately tolerant; Potentat — susceptible) with the use of 271 primers. Out of 271 primers 28 generated stable polymorphism and so they were tested for linkage to resistance gene. Bulk segregant analysis (BSA) was applied to F₂ segregating progeny developed from resistant × susceptible parents. As a result, 5 primers enabling us to distinguish between resistant and susceptible forms were detected. Only one of them had previously been reported by Chague et al. (1996). The analysis should be repeated on a larger population to confirm the results obtained.     

Evolutionary Morphology in Belgium

In historical literature, Edouard van Beneden (1846–1910) is mostly remembered for his cytological discoveries. Less well known, however, is that he also introduced evolutionary morphology – and indeed evolutionary theory as such – in the Belgian academic world. The introduction of this research programme cannot be understood without taking both the international and the national context into account. It was clearly the German example of the Jena University that inspired van Beneden in his research interests. The actual launch of evolutionary morphology at his University of Liège was, however, also connected with the dynamic of Belgian university reforms and the local rationale of creating a research “school.” Thanks to his networks, his mastering of the rhetoric of the “new” biology, his low ideological profile and his capitalising on the new academic élan in late-19th century Belgium, van Beneden managed to turn his programme into a local success from the 1870s onwards. Two decades later, however, the conceptual underpinnings of evolutionary morphology came under attack and the “Van Beneden School” lost much of its vitality. Despite this, van Beneden’s evolutionary morphology was prototypical for the research that was to come. He was one of the first scientific heavyweights in Belgium to turn the university laboratory into a centre of scientific practice and the hub of a research school.     

A study on the social structure and dispersal patterns of hamadryas baboons living in a commensal group at Taif,Saudi Arabia

Three levels of hamadryas social structure—the one male unit (OMU), the band, and the troop—have been observed at all sites studied, but a fourth—the clan—has been observed at only one site, Erer-Gota, Ethiopia, during a longitudinal check of the dispersion of identified individuals. The clan is important since it appears to provide the basis for male philopatry, although comparative data is needed from other sites to confirm this. We studied a huge commensal group of hamadryas baboons (over 600 animals) in Saudi Arabia. We put ear tags on baboons between 1998 and 2004 and analyzed social structure, relying on the interactions of these tagged animals by focusing especially on their dispersal patterns from OMUs. OMU membership tended to be looser than that of the Ethiopian hamadryas. Females tended to shift between OMUs on an individual basis in our study group, whereas the collapse of an OMU was a major occasion of adult female transfer in Ethiopia. We found neither stable bands (a “band” in our study group was defined as a regional assemblage of OMUs) nor clans that lasted for several years. Some OMUs moved and transferred into neighboring areas over both the short and long term. Further, some post-adolescent males appeared to move out of the study area. The ratio of adult females in an OMU in our study group was larger than for any other documented study site, and this may be the reason for enhanced female transfer between OMUs. A large proportion of the adolescent females showed no clear membership to OMUs, and no “initial units” (commonly observed in Ethiopia) were discernible. The ease with which young males acquired adult females at the study site must have disrupted the formation of a clan, a “male-bonded society.”     

Alfred Kühn (1885-1968) and developmental evolution

Alfred Kühn (1885-1968) was known as one of the most comprehensive zoologists of his time. His research program in developmental physiological genetics was one of the first successful attempts to integrate the experimental study of development and heredity. It led him to discover the first known reaction chain from gene to phenotype. Kühn also foresaw many elements of modern evolutionary developmental biology and as a student of Weismann and mentor to many developmental geneticists of the late 20th century directly connects Weismann with molecular developmental genetics.     

Degree of pelvic sexual dimorphism in human populations. A greene t-test application

The knowledge of sexual dimorphisms is important in many aspects of paleodemography and paleobiology. One major problem lies in a correct sexual diagnosis. However, due to the different methodologies employed to estimate the degree of sexual dimorphism, the comparison of the results remains difficult. The Greene t-test (1989) is accurate for a comparative analysis of raw data. On the basis of 18 measurements of theos coxae the test is made to evaluate the degree of sexual dimorphism. The data collected are employed to investigate the pelvic sexual dimorphism within a recent sample of known sex, and among the Afalou-bou Rhummel — Taforalt (Epipaleolithic of Northern Africa) and the Teviec — Hoedic samples (Mesolithic of France). A comparative analysis is applied to a few recent samples. The results indicate the stability of sexual dimorphism pattern in recent and past populations.