First results on bathymetry and limnology of high-altitude lakes in the Gokyo Valley, Sagarmatha (Everest) National Park, Nepal

The aim of this study was to investigate for the first time the morphology, physical and chemical characteristics of three high-altitude lakes in the Gokyo Valley, Everest National Park, Nepal. The moraine-dammed glacial lakes were studied for three seasons to create baseline data. The second, third, and fourth lakes in the Gokyo Valley are deeper than previously assumed. The vertical profiles of temperature and dissolved oxygen indicated that the thermocline zone varied between 10 and 20 m below the surface during the post-monsoon season. Although most of the analyzed metal concentrations were below the level recommended by the WHO for safe drinking water, lead (Pb) and cadmium (Cd) levels exceeded the limits in some of the samples. This has created great concern for human health. The probable route of these two pollutants is monsoon precipitation that carries industrial pollutants along its route. The sedimentation rates of Gokyo Lakes range from 0.069 to 0.089 cm per annum, which is within the limits of other high-altitude lakes. The present findings created a baseline database for some of the remote high-altitude lakes in Nepal that can be used for lake management and for assessing future changes in lake characteristics in the Himalayan region.     

Recovery of the snow leopard in Sagarmatha (Mt. Everest) National Park: effects on main prey

Consequences of predation may be particularly heavy on small populations of herbivores, especially if they are threatened with extinction. Over the 2006–2010 period, we documented the effects of the spontaneous return of the endangered snow leopard on the population of the vulnerable Himalayan tahr. The study area was an area of central Himalaya where this cat disappeared c. 40 years before, because of persecution by man. Snow leopards occurred mainly in areas close to the core area of tahr distribution. Tahr was the staple (56.3 %) of snow leopards. After the arrival of this cat, tahr decreased by more than 2/3 from 2003 to 2010 (mainly through predation on kids). Subsequently, the density of snow leopards decreased by 60 % from 2007 to 2010. The main prey of snow leopards in Asia (bharal, marmots) were absent in our study area, forcing snow leopards to specialize on tahr. The restoration of a complete prey spectrum should be favoured through reintroductions, to conserve large carnivores and to reduce exploitation of small populations of herbivores, especially if threatened.     

Notes on Cladocera and Copepoda from high altitude lakes in the Mount Everest Region (Nepal)

The paper deals with Cladocera and Copepoda species from eight high altitude lakes in the Khumbu area. In all lakes, an endemic known diaptomid of the palearctic genus Arctodiaptomus is found. The dark and large Daphnia tibetana occurs in five of the lakes sampled, characterized by the persistence of the spine in adults (parthenogenetic and ephippial females, males). Apparently, this is an unknown feature of this species. The literature on the diagnostic traits of the different morphs described is reviewed. In addition, a transparent and smaller-sized Daphnia species occurs in two lakes. This is a D. longispina characterized by the absence in adults of the carapace spine (var. aspina Weretschagin, 1911). The presence of these two species is discussed in relation to water transparency, colour, and vertical distribution. Two hypotheses on the evolution of cuticular pigmentation in Daphnia are examined. In addition to these mostly dominant species, a macrothricid also typical of high altitude lakes in the Alps was found (Macrothrix hirsuticornis) together with two cosmopolitan Chydoridae.     

广东梧桐山国家级风景名胜区两栖爬行动物多样性研究

2012年对广东梧桐山国家级风景名胜区内的两栖爬行动物进行本底普查,共记录两栖动物2目7科18种,包括中国特有种5种,国家Ⅱ级重点保护野生动物1种,CITES公约附录Ⅱ1种,IUCN濒危物种红色名录列为易危(VU)1种、近危(NT)1种。爬行动物共记录3目(含亚目)11科35种,其中,中国特有种5种,受保护和受胁物种6种,国家Ⅰ级重点保护野生动物1种——蟒蛇Python molurus。区系分析结果显示,梧桐山国家级风景名胜区内的两栖爬行动物具有明显的南亚热带区系的过渡特征。另外,调查发现掌突蟾属1种、湍蛙属1种分别与已知同属物种存在分化,颈槽蛇属有1新种。     

The recent palaeolimnology of Lake Nicholls,Mount Field National Park,Tasmania

Analyses were carried out for diatoms, spherical carbonaceous particles, and magnetic minerals on a short sediment core from a small cirque lake, Lake Nicholls, in the Mount Field National Park, south-west Tasmania.Catchment disturbance is not evident from the fairly constant sediment accumulation rates and magnetic analyses of the sediment record. However, there is evidence for a low level of atmospheric contamination during the industrial period, which reaches a maximum at the present time, but is less than in many areas of north-west Europe. Changes in the diatom assemblages recorded in the sediment core are likely to be related to factors, other than catchment change or atmospheric contamination, such as the response of within lake processes to climate change.Several diatom taxa found in the cores cannot presently be assigned to known species. Although some of these may later be identified following this preliminary study, it seems highly likely that freshwater lakes in south-west Tasmania contain a number of new and perhaps endemic taxa.     

Kill rates and food consumption of leopards in Bardia National Park, Nepal

This is the first study presenting data on kill rates and food consumption among Asian leopardsPanthera pardus Linnaeus, 1758. In Bardia National Park, Nepal, we found leopard kills by searching within areas with clusters of locations from radio collared leopards (2 males and 1 female with 2 cubs aged 4–9 months). We used two tracking schemes, 24-h intensive radio-tracking and daily monitoring, and we defined food consumption as the product of average prey live weight and proportion consumed. The three leopards consumed 89.2 kg of meat from five chitalAxis axis, one domestic dog and two birds during 19 days of 24-h intensive tracking, rendering an average (± SE) daily food intake of 4.7 ± 0.3 kgper capita. Twenty-five prey items (14 chital, one muntjacMuntiacus muntjak, four primates and six birds) were found during 180 days of daily monitoring of the female. All edible biomass was consumed in all kills, except for three chital, and the rate of kill consumption was positively related to the age of her cubs. The average daily food consumption of the female was 4.0 ± 0.3 kg/day, the kill rate (days/kill) including all prey categories was 5.6 ± 0.4 days, and the kill rate of ungulates was 10.6 ±0.7 days. Our food consumption estimates are higher than reported from arid African environments. We suggest that the high food consumption rate in our study is a consequence of a release from time-energy constraints due to high prey abundance.     

Ecological strategies of woolly monkeys (Lagothrix lagotricha) at Tinigua National Park,Colombia

Information on the use of space, activity patterns, diet, and social interactions were recorded for a group of woolly monkeys (Lagothrix lagotricha) during 13 months at Tinigua National Park, Macarena, Colombia. In this region, fruit abundance changes throughout the year with a peak during March–April (beginning of the rainy season) and less fruit during September-November (end of rainy season). Woolly monkeys spent most of their time in mature forest where fruit abundance is higher than in opendegraded or flooded forests. Changes in habitat used by monkeys were coupled with changes in fruit supply across vegetation types. On an annual basis, woolly monkeys spent 24% of point samples locomoting, 36% resting, 36% feeding, and 4% on other activities. However, these proportions varied across the year depending on fruit availability. Based on instantaneous samples, the diet consisted mostly of fruits (60%), arthropods (23%), vegetative parts and flowers (17%), and other items (1%). Non-lactating females and juveniles spent more time eating insects than adult males and lactating females; however, significant differences between classes were detected only during the period of fruit scarcity. These differences are probably due to the high extent to which non-lactating females and juveniles were excluded from fruiting trees by males. The high proportion of arthropods in their diet is unusual for primates with large body size and is a possible factor influencing group cohesiveness in woolly monkeys. © 1994 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

A classification of subtropical riverine grassland and forest in Chitwan National Park,Nepal

Eight grassland associations with ten phases and two riverine forest associations were identified on the floodplains of Chitwan National Park in lowland Nepal. TwoThemeda arundinacea associations were primarily stable edaphic associations on mollic soils, often with aquic moisture regimes.Themeda associations were floristically similar to adjacent sal forest. Four mixed tall-grass associations primarily ofNarenga porphyrocoma, Saccharum bengalense, andSaccharum spontaneum were identified. These andThemeda arundinacea types were characterized by a very weak component of woody species. Two grass-shrub associations ofSaccharum bengalense andNarenga porphyrocoma with a strong woody species component typical of riverine forest were described.Trewia nudiflora-Bombax ceiba riverine forest and mixed riverine forest types also were identified on the basis of understory composition. Mixed tall-grass and grass-shrub associations appeared to represent early and late phases of grassland succession to riverine forest. Trajectories of succession are controlled primarily by fire and wildlife grazing. The classification refines the general classifications applied to the central Terai of Nepal and India, and should provide insight for classification of other Terai riverine grasslands.Abbreviations DS Dabadghao and Shankarnarayan's 1973 grassland classification for India - IMCY Imperata cylindrica - NAFA Narenga fallax - NAPO Narenga porphyrocoma - PHKA Phragmites karka - SABE Saccharum bengalense - SASP Saccharum spontaneum - THAR Themeda arundinacea     

Habitat occupancy of sloth bear Melursus ursinus in Chitwan National Park,Nepal

Mammals have experienced a massive decline in their populations and geographic ranges worldwide. The sloth bear, Melursus ursinus (Shaw, 1791), is one of many species facing conservation threats. Despite being endangered in Nepal, decades of inattention to the situation have hindered their conservation and management. We assessed the distribution and patterns of habitat use by sloth bears in Chitwan National Park (CNP), Nepal. We conducted sign surveys from March to June, 2020, in 4 × 4 km grids (n = 45). We collected detection/non‐detection data along a 4‐km trail that was divided into 20 continuous segments of 200 m each. We obtained environmental, ecological, and anthropogenic covariates to understand determinants of sloth bear habitat occupancy. The data were analyzed using the single‐species single‐season occupancy method, with a spatially correlated detection. Using repeated observations, these models accounted for the imperfect detectability of the species to provide robust estimates of habitat occupancy. The model‐averaged occupancy estimate for the sloth bear was 69% and the detection probability was 0.25. The probability of habitat occupancy by sloth bears increased with the presence of termites and fruits and in rugged, dry, open, undisturbed habitats. Our results indicate that the sloth bear is elusive, functionally unique, and widespread in CNP. Future conservation interventions and action plans aimed at sloth bear management must adequately consider their habitat requirements.     

Reproductive biology of Abies cephalonica Loudon in Mount Aenos National Park, Cephalonia, Greece

The reproductive biology of the endemic to Greece Abies cephalonica Loudon, including the phenology of the reproductive life cycle, cone production in relation to plant age and the required seed germination conditions, was studied. All individuals growing within 20 permanent plots of 100 m² each established in 11 different locations covering the entire strictly protected area of Mount Aenos National Park (Cephalonia) were monitored over a period of 4 years. The cones are formed on the upper part of the previous year’s branches, mostly at the upper crown half of the reproductive individuals (over 53 years old). Female flowers are pollinated in spring and cone maturation lasts until the beginning of autumn, when seed dispersal occurs. The annual production of cones per individual varied significantly, revealing masting behavior for this tree. This behavior was also expressed in the number of trees producing cones, as well as the percentage of sound seeds per cone. A significant difference in the mass and the length of the cones between the years of low and high cone production was observed, being higher in the years of massive cone production. Similar germination percentages were observed in full darkness or under “canopy light” and “sun light”, provided that the seeds were previously stratified for 6 weeks. It is concluded that A. cephalonica exhibits plasticity expressed in its reproductive behavior for alternating years of high to low cone production and in its seed germination for an array of habitat light conditions.     

Habitat niche relationships within an assemblage of ungulates in Bardia National Park,Nepal

Species co-exist in their individual niches by partitioning resources. The main prey of the big predators – wild boar, chital, and sambar are sympatric in tropical south-Asia. In order to obtain a better understanding of their habitat use and habitat niche relationships, we used an indirect sign (faecal pellets and rooting by wild boar) survey along line transects in Bardia National Park. Ground cover, in particular grass cover for wild boar and chital, and shrub cover for chital and sambar positively affected the occurrence of ungulate signs. We found a niche differentiation between wild boar, which preferred hill sal forest and grassland, and chital and sambar, which avoided hill sal forest and grassland. Habitat niche overlap between chital and sambar in open habitat was clearly evident during the dry season. It is suggested that the fine grained habitat mosaics in space are the underlying causes of the coexistence of the ungulates studied. Therefore, focus on maintaining the habitat mosaic throughout the regions of the species’ distribution may prove successful for effective conservation management.     

Ecological drivers of female lion (Panthera leo) reproduction in the Kruger National Park

The role of social cues in the reproduction of social mammals, particularly carnivores, has been thoroughly studied and documented in literature. However, environmental cues such as resources of water, food, and shelter have been identified to a lesser extent. Pregnant lions (Panthera leo) are notoriously secretive during the final stages of pregnancy and postpartum. Behavioral indicators depicted by movement patterns obtained by remote detection of collared female lions in the Kruger National Park were necessary for the monitoring of birth timing. Over the study period, eight plus a potential three parturition incidences of collared females were recorded. Of the variables measured (step length, range size, duration, prey biomass, and rainfall), range size during the month of parturition was the most indicative movement pattern of a successful birth. By backdating the potential birth month of the litters, date of conception was calculated and our results revealed a correlation between the birthing peaks of preferred prey during the month of conception. Birth timing in conjunction with remote sensing and ecological factors were thus identified behaviors associated with denning.     

Effects of hydrology on zooplankton communities in high-mountain ponds, Mount Rainier National Park, USA

Ten high-mountain ponds in Mount Rainier National Park, WashingtonState, were studied from ice-out in June through September1992to investigate the influences of fluctuating pond volumes onzooplankton communities. All of the ponds were at maximum volumeimmediately after ice-out. The temporary pond with the shortestwet phase was inhabited by rotifer taxa with short generationtimes and a crustacean taxon with the ability to encyst as drought-resistantresting bodies at immature stages of development. Dominant zooplanktontaxa in three other temporary ponds and six permanent pondswere similar. Rotifer densities typically were lower in temporaryponds relative to those in permanent ponds, although Brachionusurceolaris was abundant shortly before the temporary ponds dried.Large volume loss was associated with large declines in totalabundances of crustacean populations. Daphnia rosea was notpresent in temporary ponds following fall recharge. In deep-permanentponds, copepods had slower developmental rates, smaller temporalchanges in total abundances of crustacean populations and twoadditional large-bodied crustacean taxa were present relativeto the characteristics of crustacean communities in shallow-permanentponds. Owing to their small sizes and sensitivity to environmentalchange, collectively ponds such as these may provide an earlysignal of long-term climate change in aquatic systems.     

Effects of grazing and cultivation on forest plant communities in Mount Elgon National Park, Uganda

Plant communities in the montane forest of Mount Elgon National Park were studied in order to assess the impact of grazing and cultivation on species composition. Present and former land uses, tree, shrub and herb species, soil properties and the percentage cover and height of trees, shrubs and herbs were determined in 40 plots. An indirect ordination of these plots showed that species composition was primarily determined by successional stage and agricultural disturbance. In forest plots (ordinated separately) where the widest range of former and current grazing intensities had occurred, evidence of grazing history, soil phosphorus and vegetation height correlated negatively with the strongest ordination axis. Least grazed forest plots had fewer tree seedlings and saplings than more intensively grazed plots. This may be due to the increase in Mimulopsis alpina (Acanthaceae) in less grazed forest where tree regeneration might otherwise be more advanced. Tree seedlings and saplings were uncommon in the forest, rarely exceeding 30cm in height and there was no tree understorey. Although grazing is important for preserving species diversity in Mount Elgon National Park through the maintenance of species-rich grasslands, long-term effects on montane forest communities must be considered in future park management.     

Ecological constraints on the grouping of wild orang-utans (Pongo pygmaeus) in the Gunung Leuser National Park,Sumatra, Indonesia

The orang-utan (Pongo pygmaeus)is an interesting subject on which to base an evaluation of the costs and benefits of social life in apes, since grouping in this heavy, arboreal frugivore is facultative. In the Ketambe area of Sumatra, Indonesia, the food sources of wild orang-utans display a clear seasonality. The two main food types— figs and other, nonfig, fruits— fulfill different functions. The huge fig trees meet the high caloric requirements of the ape and are therefore visited regularly throughout the year. Nonfig fruits are an additional food source but become a really important alternative when figs are in short supply. Since fig trees are relatively rare, it is only in the nonfig fruiting season that food is relatively abundant. Two types of orang-utan groupings could be distinguished. During lean periods, groups formed in the few productive fig trees available can be explained as forced aggregations taking place in spite of centrifugal forces caused by competition. Only when a temporary surfeit of food slackens these centrifugal forces (i.e., during the fruit season) does the tendency to form spontaneous social groups (the second type of grouping) reveal itself. It is suggested that the development of social skills is an important aspect of grouping in adolescent orang-utans. For the adult male, safeguarding his reproductive success by protecting females against sexually aggressive subadult males is probably the only reason for being in groups.     

Effects of Management on Lichen Species Richness,Ecological Traits and Community Structure in the Rodnei Mountains National Park (Romania)

Lichens are valuable bio-indicators for evaluating the consequences of human activities that are increasingly changing the earth’s ecosystems. Since a major objective of national parks is the preservation of biodiversity, our aim is to analyse how natural resource management, the availability of lichen substrates and environmental parameters influence lichen diversity in Rodnei Mountains National Park situated in the Eastern Carpathians. Three main types of managed vegetation were investigated: the transhumance systems in alpine meadows, timber exploitation in mixed and pure spruce forests, and the corresponding conserved sites. The data were sampled following a replicated design. For the analysis, we considered not only all lichen species, but also species groups from different substrates such as soil, trees and deadwood. The lichen diversity was described according to species richness, red-list status and substrate-specialist species richness. The variation in species composition was related to the environmental variables. Habitat management was found to negatively influence species richness and alter the lichen community composition, particularly for threatened and substrate-specialist species. It reduced the mean level of threatened species richness by 59%, when all lichen species were considered, and by 81%, when only epiphytic lichens were considered. Management-induced disturbance significantly decreased lichen species richness in forest landscapes with long stand continuity. The diversity patterns of the lichens indicate a loss of species richness and change in species composition in areas where natural resources are still exploited inside the borders of the national park. It is thus imperative for protected areas, in particular old-growth forests and alpine meadows, to receive more protection than they have received in the past to ensure populations of the characteristic species remain viable in the future.     

山地视觉景观的GIS评价--以广东南昆山国家森林公园为例

视觉景观评价是指某一特定区域具有视觉价值的景观的量化评价。山地是旅游开发的重要区域,山地景观是山地资源价值和山地生态环境的重要体现之一。以广东南昆山为例,将视野总面积、水域空阔度、景观层作为七仙湖环湖地区视觉景观评价的三大因子。以基础地理数据结合DEM作为数据基础,借助ArcGIS软件作为具体实现平台,设计景观层分析和视通性分析模型,对最佳坡度、最佳坡向、水文、交通条件叠加分析后过滤的62个样地进行视觉景观定量分析,确定评价标准,最后得到8号、23号、50号、55号样地较其他样地在整体视野\,能见水域开阔和景观层次有明显优势。以此验证了将GIS空间分析技术应用于视觉景观评价的可行性,并为旅游观景点与度假村开发提供了科学依据。     

Heterogeneity in African savanna elephant distributions and their impacts on trees in Kruger National Park,South Africa

1. Though elephants are a major cause of savanna tree mortality and threaten vulnerable tree species, managing their impact remains difficult, in part because relatively little is known about how elephant impacts are distributed throughout space.
2. This is exacerbated by uncertainty about what determines the distribution of elephants themselves, as well as whether the distribution of elephants is even informative for understanding the distribution of their impacts.
3. To better understand the factors that underlie elephant impacts, we modeled elephant distributions and their damage to trees with respect to soil properties, water availability, and vegetation in Kruger National Park, South Africa, using structural equation modeling.
4. We found that bull elephants and mixed herds differed markedly in their distributions, with bull elephants concentrating in sparsely treed basaltic sites close to artificial waterholes and mixed herds aggregating around permanent rivers, particularly in areas with little grass.
5. Surprisingly, we also found that the distribution of elephant impacts, while highly heterogeneous, was largely unrelated to the distribution of elephants themselves, with damage concentrated instead in densely treed areas and particularly on basaltic soils.
6. Results underscore the importance of surface water for elephants but suggest that elephant water dependence operates together with other landscape factors, particularly vegetation community composition and historical management interventions, to influence elephant distributions.