Ascertaining the role of Taiwan as a source for the Austronesian expansion

Taiwanese aborigines have been deemed the ancestors of Austronesian speakers which are currently distributed throughout two‐thirds of the globe. As such, understanding their genetic distribution and diversity as well as their relationship to mainland Asian groups is important to consolidating the numerous models that have been proposed to explain the dispersal of Austronesian speaking peoples into Oceania. To better understand the role played by the aboriginal Taiwanese in this diaspora, we have analyzed a total of 451 individuals belonging to nine of the tribes currently residing in Taiwan, namely the Ami, Atayal, Bunun, Paiwan, Puyuma, Rukai, Saisiyat, Tsou, and the Yami from Orchid Island off the coast of Taiwan across 15 autosomal short tandem repeat loci. In addition, we have compared the genetic profiles of these tribes to populations from mainland China as well as to collections at key points throughout the Austronesian domain. While our results suggest that Daic populations from Southern China are the likely forefathers of the Taiwanese aborigines, populations within Taiwan show a greater genetic impact on groups at the extremes of the current domain than populations from Indonesia, Mainland, or Southeast Asia lending support to the “Out of Taiwan” hypothesis. We have also observed that specific Taiwanese aboriginal groups (Paiwan, Puyuma, and Saisiyat), and not all tribal populations, have highly influenced genetic distributions of Austronesian populations in the pacific and Madagascar suggesting either an asymmetric migration out of Taiwan or the loss of certain genetic signatures in some of the Taiwanese tribes due to endogamy, isolation, and/or drift. Am J Phys Anthropol 150:551–564, 2013. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

The impact of the Austronesian expansion: evidence from mtDNA and Y chromosome diversity in the Admiralty Islands of Melanesia

The genetic ancestry of Polynesians can be traced to both Asia and Melanesia, which presumably reflects admixture occurring between incoming Austronesians and resident non-Austronesians in Melanesia before the subsequent occupation of the greater Pacific; however, the genetic impact of the Austronesian expansion to Melanesia remains largely unknown. We therefore studied the diversity of nonrecombining Y chromosomal (NRY) and mitochondrial (mt) DNA in the Admiralty Islands, located north of mainland Papua New Guinea, and updated our previous data from Asia, Melanesia, and Polynesia with new NRY markers. The Admiralties are occupied today solely by Austronesian-speaking groups, but their human settlement history goes back 20,000 years prior to the arrival of Austronesians about 3,400 years ago. On the Admiralties, we found substantial mtDNA and NRY variation of both Austronesian and non-Austronesian origins, with higher frequencies of Asian mtDNA and Melanesian NRY haplogroups, similar to previous findings in Polynesia and perhaps as a consequence of Austronesian matrilocality. Thus, the Austronesian language replacement on the Admiralties (and elsewhere in Island Melanesia and coastal New Guinea) was accompanied by an incomplete genetic replacement that is more associated with mtDNA than with NRY diversity. These results provide further support for the "Slow Boat" model of Polynesian origins, according to which Polynesian ancestors originated from East Asia but genetically mixed with Melanesians before colonizing the Pacific. We also observed that non-Austronesian groups of coastal New Guinea and Island Melanesia had significantly higher frequencies of Asian mtDNA haplogroups than of Asian NRY haplogroups, suggesting sex-biased admixture perhaps as a consequence of non-Austronesian patrilocality. We additionally found that the predominant NRY haplogroup of Asian origin in the Admiralties (O-M110) likely originated in Taiwan, thus providing the first direct Y chromosome evidence for a Taiwanese origin of the Austronesian expansion. Furthermore, we identified a NRY haplogroup (K-P79, also found on the Admiralties) in Polynesians that most likely arose in the Bismarck Archipelago, providing the first direct link between northern Island Melanesia and Polynesia. These results significantly advance our understanding of the impact of the Austronesian expansion and human history in the Pacific region.     

Balinese Y-chromosome perspective on the peopling of Indonesia: genetic contributions from pre-neolithic hunter-gatherers, Austronesian farmers, and Indian traders

The island of Bali lies near the center of the southern chain of islands in the Indonesian archipelago, which served as a stepping-stone for early migrations of hunter-gatherers to Melanesia and Australia and for more recent migrations of Austronesian farmers from mainland Southeast Asia to the Pacific. Bali is the only Indonesian island with a population that currently practices the Hindu religion and preserves various other Indian cultural, linguistic, and artistic traditions (Lansing 1983). Here, we examine genetic variation on the Y chromosomes of 551 Balinese men to investigate the relative contributions of Austronesian farmers and pre-Neolithic hunter-gatherers to the contemporary Balinese paternal gene pool and to test the hypothesis of recent paternal gene flow from the Indian subcontinent. Seventy-one Y-chromosome binary polymorphisms (single nucleotide polymorphisms, SNPs) and 10 Y-chromosome-linked short tandem repeats (STRs) were genotyped on a sample of 1,989 Y chromosomes from 20 populations representing Indonesia (including Bali), southern China, Southeast Asia, South Asia, the Near East, and Oceania. SNP genotyping revealed 22 Balinese lineages, 3 of which (O-M95, O-M119, and O-M122) account for nearly 83.7% of Balinese Y chromosomes. Phylogeographic analyses suggest that all three major Y-chromosome haplogroups migrated to Bali with the arrival of Austronesian speakers; however, STR diversity patterns associated with these haplogroups are complex and may be explained by multiple waves of Austronesian expansion to Indonesia by different routes. Approximately 2.2% of contemporary Balinese Y chromosomes (i.e., K-M9*, K-M230, and M lineages) may represent the pre-Neolithic component of the Indonesian paternal gene pool. In contrast, eight other haplogroups (e.g., within H, J, L, and R), making up approximately 12% of the Balinese paternal gene pool, appear to have migrated to Bali from India. These results indicate that the Austronesian expansion had a profound effect on the composition of the Balinese paternal gene pool and that cultural transmission from India to Bali was accompanied by substantial levels of gene flow.     

Earliest Pottery on New Guinea Mainland Reveals Austronesian Influences in Highland Environments 3000 Years Ago

Austronesian speaking peoples left Southeast Asia and entered the Western Pacific c.4000-3000 years ago, continuing on to colonise Remote Oceania for the first time, where they became the ancestral populations of Polynesians. Understanding the impact of these peoples on the mainland of New Guinea before they entered Remote Oceania has eluded archaeologists. New research from the archaeological site of Wañelek in the New Guinea Highlands has broken this silence. Petrographic and geochemical data from pottery and new radiocarbon dating demonstrates that Austronesian influences penetrated into the highland interior by 3000 years ago. One potsherd was manufactured along the northeast coast of New Guinea, whereas others were manufactured from inland materials. These findings represent the oldest securely dated pottery from an archaeological context on the island of New Guinea. Additionally, the pottery comes from the interior, suggesting the movements of people and technological practices, as well as objects at this time. The antiquity of the Wañelek pottery is coincident with the expansion of Lapita pottery in the Western Pacific. Such occupation also occurs at the same time that changes have been identified in subsistence strategies in the archaeological record at Kuk Swamp suggesting a possible link between the two.     

Y chromosomal evidence for the origins of oceanic-speaking peoples.

A number of alternative hypotheses seek to explain the origins of the three groups of Pacific populations-Melanesians, Micronesians, and Polynesians-who speak languages belonging to the Oceanic subfamily of Austronesian languages. To test these various hypotheses at the genetic level, we assayed diversity within the nonrecombining portion of the Y chromosome, which contains within it a relatively simple record of the human past and represents the most informative haplotypic system in the human genome. High-resolution haplotypes combining binary, microsatellite, and minisatellite markers were generated for 390 Y chromosomes from 17 Austronesian-speaking populations in southeast Asia and the Pacific. Nineteen paternal lineages were defined and a Bayesian analysis of coalescent simulations was performed upon the microsatellite diversity within lineages to provide a temporal aspect to their geographical distribution. The ages and distributions of these lineages provide little support for the dominant archeo-linguistic model of the origins of Oceanic populations that suggests that these peoples represent the Eastern fringe of an agriculturally driven expansion initiated in southeast China and Taiwan. Rather, most Micronesian and Polynesian Y chromosomes appear to originate from different source populations within Melanesia and Eastern Indonesia. The Polynesian outlier, Kapingamarangi, is demonstrated to be an admixed Micronesian/Polynesian population. Furthermore, it is demonstrated that a geographical rather than linguistic classification of Oceanic populations best accounts for their extant Y chromosomal diversity.     

Comparative population genetics of mimetic Heliconius butterflies in an endangered habitat; Brazil's Atlantic Forest

Background

The islands of North Maluku, Indonesia occupy a central position in the major prehistoric dispersal streams that shaped the peoples of Island Southeast Asia and the Pacific. Within this region a linguistic contact zone exists where speakers of Papuan and Austronesian languages reside in close proximity. Here we use population genetic data to assess the extent to which North Maluku populations experienced admixture of Asian genetic material, and whether linguistic boundaries reflect genetic differentiation today.

Results

Autosomal and X-linked markers reveal overall Asian admixture of 67% in North Maluku, demonstrating a substantial contribution of genetic material into the region from Asia. We observe no evidence of population structure associated with ethnicity or language affiliation.

Conclusions

Our data support a model of widespread Asian admixture in North Maluku, likely mediated by the expansion of Austronesian-speaking peoples into the region during the mid Holocene. In North Maluku there is no genetic differentiation in terms of Austronesian- versus Papuan-speakers, suggesting extensive gene flow across linguistic boundaries. In a regional context, our results illuminate a major genetic divide at the Molucca Sea, between the islands of Sulawesi and North Maluku. West of this divide, populations exhibit predominantly Asian ancestry, with very little contribution of Papuan genetic material. East of the Molucca Sea, populations show diminished rates of Asian admixture and substantial persistence of Papuan genetic diversity.     

JC virus genotypes in the western Pacific suggest Asian mainland relationships and virus association with early population movements

Distinct genotypes of human polyomavirus JC (JCV) have remained population associated possibly from the time of dispersal of modern humans from Africa. Seven major genotypes with additional subtypes serve as plausible markers for following early and more recent human migrations in all parts of the world. Phylogenetic trees of JCV sequences from the major continental population groups show a trifurcation at the base indicating early division into European, African, and Asian branches. Here, we have explored JCV relationships in the island populations of the western Pacific. Since these islands were settled from the Asian mainland and islands of Southeast Asia, we expected that their virus genotypes might show an Asian connection. We found that Type 2E (Austronesian) and Type 8 (non-Austronesian) are widely distributed in western Pacific populations. A few south China strains were found (Type 7A). A subtype of Type 8, Type 8A, was confined to Papua New Guinea. In keeping with these assignments we find that phylogenetic analysis by neighbor-joining and maximum parsimony methods places Type 2E in a closer relationship to east Asian mainland strains such as Type 2A and Type 7. Our findings support the Asian origins of the western Pacific JCV strains, and suggest three broad movements: an ancient one characterized by Type 8A, and then Type 8B, followed much later by migrations carrying Type 2E, which may correlate with the arrival of Austronesian-language speakers, the bearers of the "Lapita" cultural complex (approximately 3,500 to 5,000 years ago), and relatively recent movements carrying largely Type 7A (south China) strains directly from the West.     

Different population histories of the Mundari- and Mon-Khmer-speaking Austro-Asiatic tribes inferred from the mtDNA 9-bp deletion/insertion polymorphism in Indian populations

Length variation in the human mtDNA intergenic region between the cytochrome oxidase II (COII) and tRNA lysine (tRNA^lys) genes has been widely studied in world populations. Specifically, Austronesian populations of the Pacific and Austro-Asiatic populations of southeast Asia most frequently carry the 9-bp deletion in that region implying their shared common ancestry in haplogroup B. Furthermore, multiple independent origins of the 9-bp deletion at the background of other mtDNA haplogroups has been shown in populations of Africa, Europe, Australia, and India. We have analyzed 3293 Indian individuals belonging to 58 populations, representing different caste, tribal, and religious groups, for the length variation in the 9-bp motif. The 9-bp deletion (one copy) and insertion (three copies) alleles were observed in 2.51% (2.15% deletion and 0.36% insertion) of the individuals. The maximum frequency of the deletion (45.8%) was observed in the Nicobarese in association with the haplogroup B5a D-loop motif that is common throughout southeast Asia. The low polymorphism in the D-loop sequence of the Nicobarese B5a samples suggests their recent origin and a founder effect, probably involving migration from southeast Asia. Interestingly, none of the 302 (except one Munda sample, which has 9-bp insertion) from Mundari-speaking Austro-Asiatic populations from the Indian mainland showed the length polymorphism of the 9-bp motif, pointing either to their independent origin from the Mon-Khmeric-speaking Nicobarese or to an extensive admixture with neighboring Indo-European-speaking populations. Consistent with previous reports, the Indo-European and Dravidic populations of India showed low frequency of the 9-bp deletion/insertion. More than 18 independent origins of the deletion or insertion mutation could be inferred in the phylogenetic analysis of the D-loop sequences.     

Soybean germplasm pools in Asia revealed by nuclear SSRs

Soybean was domesticated in East Asia, where various kinds of landraces have been established as a result of adaptation to different environments and the diversification of food cultures. Asia is thus an important germplasm pool of soybean. In order to evaluate the genetic structure of the Asian soybean population, we analyzed allelic profiles at 20 simple-sequence repeat (SSR) loci of 131 accessions introduced from 14 Asian countries. The SSR loci produced an average of 11.9 alleles and a mean gene diversity of 0.782 in the accessions tested. Quantification theory III analysis and cluster analysis with the UPGMA method clearly separated the Japanese from the Chinese accessions, suggesting that the Japanese and Chinese populations formed different germplasm pools. The Korean accessions were involved in both germplasm pools, whereas most of the accessions from southeast and south/central Asia were derived from the Chinese pool. Relatively high genetic diversity and the absence of region-specific clusters in the southeast and south/central Asian populations suggest that soybean in these areas has been introduced repeatedly and independently from the diverse Chinese germplasm pool. The present study indicates that the two germplasm pools can be used as exotic genetic resources to enlarge the genetic bases of the respective Asian soybean populations.     

Genome Analysis Traces Regional Dispersal of Rice in Taiwan and Southeast Asia

The dispersal of rice (Oryza sativa) following domestication influenced massive social and cultural changes across South, East, and Southeast (SE) Asia. The history of dispersal across islands of SE Asia, and the role of Taiwan and the Austronesian expansion in this process remain largely unresolved. Here, we reconstructed the routes of dispersal of O. sativa ssp. japonica rice to Taiwan and the northern Philippines using whole-genome resequencing of indigenous rice landraces coupled with archaeological and paleoclimate data. Our results indicate that japonica rice found in the northern Philippines diverged from Indonesian landraces as early as 3,500 years before present (BP). In contrast, rice cultivated by the indigenous peoples of the Taiwanese mountains has complex origins. It comprises two distinct populations, each best explained as a result of admixture between temperate japonica that presumably came from northeast Asia, and tropical japonica from the northern Philippines and mainland SE Asia, respectively. We find that the temperate japonica component of these indigenous Taiwan populations diverged from northeast Asia subpopulations at about 2,600 BP, whereas gene flow from the northern Philippines had begun before ∼1,300  BP. This coincides with a period of intensified trade established across the South China Sea. Finally, we find evidence for positive selection acting on distinct genomic regions in different rice subpopulations, indicating local adaptation associated with the spread of japonica rice.     

Phylogenetic relationships of human populations in sub-Saharan Africa

This study utilizes the GM/KM immunoglobulin allotype system to elucidate the phylogenetic relationships of sub-Saharan Africans. The importance of understanding the relatedness of these peoples stems from the sub-Saharan region being the possible birthplace of humans. Haplotype distributions were determined for 19 populations and compared using chi-square analysis. Published data of other sub-Saharan Africans and representative populations worldwide were also added for comparison. Genetic distances between populations were calculated based on haplotype frequencies, and genetic relationships were observed through principal components analysis. Data from the GM/KM system showed a genetic homogeneity of the Bantu populations, with some exceptions, supporting the possibility of a common origin of these peoples. The Malagasy appeared as a divergent population, most likely due to Southeast Asian/Austronesian admixture, as indicated by the presence of the GM*AF B haplotype. The Cape Coloured also showed a divergence, with their genetic structures containing Caucasoid and Khoisan contributions. Finally, the Mbuti Pygmies appeared genetically isolated and had the highest frequency of the GM*A B haplotype out of all studied populations.     

A predominantly indigenous paternal heritage for the Austronesian-speaking peoples of insular Southeast Asia and Oceania

Modern humans reached Southeast Asia and Oceania in one of the first dispersals out of Africa. The resulting temporal overlap of modern and archaic humans-and the apparent morphological continuity between them-has led to claims of gene flow between Homo sapiens and H. erectus. Much more recently, an agricultural technology from mainland Asia spread into the region, possibly in association with Austronesian languages. Using detailed genealogical study of Y chromosome variation, we show that the majority of current Austronesian speakers trace their paternal heritage to Pleistocene settlers in the region, as opposed to more-recent agricultural immigrants. A fraction of the paternal heritage, however, appears to be associated with more-recent immigrants from northern populations. We also show that the northern Neolithic component is very unevenly dispersed through the region, with a higher contribution in Southeast Asia and a nearly complete absence in Melanesia. Contrary to claims of gene flow (under regional continuity) between H. erectus and H. sapiens, we found no ancestral Y chromosome lineages in a set of 1,209 samples. The finding excludes the possibility that early hominids contributed significantly to the paternal heritage of the region.     

Selection pressure-driven evolution of the Epstein-Barr virus-encoded oncogene LMP1 in virus isolates from Southeast Asia

The geographically constrained distribution of Epstein-Barr virus (EBV)-associated nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC) in southeast Asian populations suggests that both viral and host genetics may influence disease risk. Although susceptibility loci have been mapped within the human genome, the role of viral genetics in the focal distribution of NPC remains an enigma. Here we report a molecular phylogenetic analysis of an NPC-associated viral oncogene, LMP1, in a large panel of EBV isolates from southeast Asia and from Papua New Guinea, Africa, and Australia, regions of the world where NPC is and is not endemic, respectively. This analysis revealed that LMP1 sequences show a distinct geographic structure, indicating that the southeast Asian isolates have evolved as a lineage distinct from those of Papua New Guinea, African, and Australian isolates. Furthermore, a likelihood ratio test revealed that the C termini of the LMP1 sequences of the southeast Asian lineage are under significant positive selection pressure, particularly at some sites within the C-terminal activator regions. We also present evidence that although the N terminus and transmembrane region of LMP1 have undergone recombination, the C-terminal region of the gene has evolved without any history of recombination. Based on these observations, we speculate that selection pressure may be driving the LMP1 sequences in virus isolates from southeast Asia towards a more malignant phenotype, thereby influencing the endemic distribution of NPC in this region.     

Patrilineal perspective on the Austronesian diffusion in Mainland Southeast Asia

The Cham people are the major Austronesian speakers of Mainland Southeast Asia (MSEA) and the reconstruction of the Cham population history can provide insights into their diffusion. In this study, we analyzed non-recombining region of the Y chromosome markers of 177 unrelated males from four populations in MSEA, including 59 Cham, 76 Kinh, 25 Lao, and 17 Thai individuals. Incorporating published data from mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), our results indicated that, in general, the Chams are an indigenous Southeast Asian population. The origin of the Cham people involves the genetic admixture of the Austronesian immigrants from Island Southeast Asia (ISEA) with the local populations in MSEA. Discordance between the overall patterns of Y chromosome and mtDNA in the Chams is evidenced by the presence of some Y chromosome lineages that prevail in South Asians. Our results suggest that male-mediated dispersals via the spread of religions and business trade might play an important role in shaping the patrilineal gene pool of the Cham people.     

Molecular genetic evidence for the human settlement of the Pacific: analysis of mitochondrial DNA, Y chromosome and HLA markers

Present-day Pacific islanders are thought to be the descendants of Neolithic agriculturalists who expanded from island South-east Asia several thousand years ago. They speak languages belonging to the Austronesian language family, spoken today in an area spanning half of the circumference of the world, from Madagascar to Easter Island, and from Taiwan to New Zealand. To investigate the genetic affinities of the Austronesian-speaking peoples, we analysed mitochondrial DNA, HLA and Y-chromosome polymorphisms in individuals from eight geographical locations in Asia and the Pacific (China, Taiwan, Java, New Guinea highlands, New Guinea coast, Trobriand Islands, New Britain and Western Samoa). Our results show that the demographic expansion of the Austronesians has left a genetic footprint. However, there is no simple correlation between languages and genes in the Pacific.     

Evolutionary significance of cranial variation in Asian Homo erectus

Homo erectus inhabited a wide geographic area of Asia, ranging from 40 degrees north latitude in China to 8 degrees south latitude in island Southeast Asia. Yet variation within Asian H. erectus and its relation to ecological and temporal parameters have been little studied. I synthesize the revised radiometric chronologies for hominid sites in Asia and their relation to new oxygen isotope curves (proxies for climatic fluctuations and landbridge connections). These data suggest substantial opportunities in the later Pleistocene for both regional isolation and gene flow between hominids in mainland and Southeast Asia. They also suggest that the most northerly located Chinese sites (Zhoukoudian and Nanjing) may have been occupied during sequential, interglacial periods. Probably reflecting these periods of isolation, nonmetric features and principal components analysis (PCA) of calvarial shape suggest regional differentiation between northern Asian and Southeast Asian H. erectus. The most recent Southeast Asian fossils (e.g., Ngandong) conform to the Southeast Asian pattern. Except perhaps in brain size, there is no evidence that the temporally intermediate Chinese fossils are intermediate in morphology between older and younger Indonesian fossils. In fact, northern Chinese calvaria are easier to exclude from the larger Asian H. erectus hypodigm than are the Ngandong fossils. The Chinese specimens differ from the others based on their narrower occipitals and frontals for their cranial size. The Chinese sample from Zhoukoudian alone is thus not a good proxy for the morphology and variation seen within Asian H. erectus. Both the Chinese and late Indonesian samples exhibit less variation than does the early Indonesian sample; this along with their shared morphological bauplan suggests a common origin and no more than subspecific differentiation. This shared morphology, despite regional differences, was likely maintained by the increasing intensity of multiple glaciations (and longer-lasting land bridge connections) between mainland and island Southeast Asia during the last million years.     

Genetic variation at 9 autosomal microsatellite loci in Asian and Pacific populations.

Genetic variation at 9 autosomal microsatellite loci (CFS1R, TH01, PLA2A, F13A1, CYP19, LPL, D20S481, D20S473, and D20S604) has been characterized in 16 Asian and Oceanic populations, mostly from mainland and insular Southeast Asia. The neighbor-joining tree and the principal coordinates analysis of the genetic relationships of these populations show a clear separation of Papua New Guinea Highlanders and, to a lesser extent, Malayan aborigines (Orang Asli or Semai) from the rest of the populations. Although the number of markers used in this study appears to be inadequate for clarifying the patterns of genetic relationships among the studied populations, in the principal coordinates analysis a geographic trend is observed in the mainland and insular Southeast Asian populations. Furthermore, in an attempt to contrast the extent of variation between autosomal and Y-chromosome-specific microsatellite loci and to reveal potential differences in the patterns of male and female migrations, we have also compared genetic variation at these 9 autosomal loci with variation observed at 5 Y-chromosome-specific microsatellites in a common set of 14 Asian populations.     

Three major lineages of Asian Y chromosomes: implications for the peopling of east and southeast Asia

DNA variation on the non-recombining portion of the Y chromosome was examined in 610 male samples from 14 global populations in north, east, and southeast Asia, and other regions of the world. Eight haplotypes were observed by analyses of seven biallelic polymorphic markers ( DYS257(108), DYS287, SRY(4064), SRY(10831), RPS4Y(711), M9, and M15) and were unevenly distributed among the populations. Maximum parsimony tree for the eight haplotypes showed that these haplotypes could be classified into four distinct lineages characterized by three key mutations: an insertion of the Y Alu polymorphic (YAP) element at DYS287, a C-to-G transversion at M9, and a C-to-T transition at RPS4Y(711). Of the four lineages, three major lineages (defined by the allele of YAP(+), M9-G, and RPS4Y-T, respectively) accounted for 98.6% of the Asian populations studied, indicating that these three paternal lineages have contributed to the formation of modern Asian populations. Moreover, phylogenetic analysis revealed three monophyletic Asian clusters, which consisted of north Asian, Japanese, and Han Chinese/southeast Asian populations, respectively. Coalescence analysis in the haplotype tree showed that the estimated ages for three key mutations ranged from 53,000 to 95,000 years, suggesting that the three lineages were separated from one another during early stages of human evolutionary history. The distribution patterns of the Y-haplotypes and mutational ages for the key markers suggest that three major groups with different paternal ancestries separately migrated to prehistoric east and southeast Asia.     

Austronesian Speakers and Hereditary Leadership in the Pacific

ABSTRACT

This article explores the notion that peoples speaking Austronesian languages brought the ideology of social hierarchy based on hereditary leadership into the Pacific Islands. This social model contrasts with the strongly egalitarian leadership that likely characterised peoples already residing in New Guinea and nearby islands. While complex interactions between these two groups did occur, particularly in coastal areas, the latter populations rarely adopted hierarchical models of leadership. In contrast, the institution of hereditary leadership burgeoned into elaborate chiefdoms as Austronesian speakers expanded into Remote Oceania. Using linguistic and archaeological evidence, we argue that hereditary leadership, or the institutions to support it, may already have been in place in early Austronesian societies in Taiwan. We further evaluate this correlation by reviewing ethnographic reports of chiefs and reanalysing scholarly appraisals of big-man societies and chiefdoms. We conclude that the ‘Melanesian big-man vs. Polynesian chief’ contrast corresponds largely to the Austronesian and Non-Austronesian language divide; attention to which can clarify the development of hereditary leadership in the Pacific and illuminate historical relations among cultures in Near Oceania.