Population dynamics of pink salmon <Emphasis Type="Italic">Oncorhynchus gorbuscha</Emphasis> (Salmonidae) from the southeastern coast of Sakhalin island

The results of monitoring from 1971 to 2004 of pink salmon Oncorhynchus gorbuscha spawning in the rivers of the southeastern coast of Sakhalin are presented. It is shown that fluctuations in the value of its return more largely depend on the level of mortality of fish of the respective generations in the marine period of life than on the yield of downstream migrating juveniles, that, in turn, is weakly related to the numbers of parents, which is explained by the spawning conditions in small rivers at a dense aggregation of spawners on the spawning grounds. Stable long-term tendencies in the variation of numbers, biological indices of fish, and the dates of their return for spawning are established. It is suggested that they indicate a decisive role of globalcyclic, climatic-oceanological processes in the population dynamics of pink salmon     

Genetic monitoring of northern sea of Okhotsk populations of pink salmon (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Oncorhynchus gorbuscha</Emphasis>)

Results from the 1993–2004 genetic monitoring of pink salmon populations reproducing in the rivers of Tauy Bay on the Sea of Okhotsk are analyzed. A statistically significant heterogeneity of samples as determined by gene frequencies is found only in the pink salmon generations of even years. The genetic differentiation of samples from even years (G_ST = 1.39 ± 0.41) is higher than that of odd years (G_ST = 0.740.09). The pattern for the indicator of genetic variability (heterozygosity) is exactly the opposite (0.076 ± 0.02564 vs. 0.8760 ± 0.01950). Consequently, the lower-heterozygosity samples of lines from even years are on average more genetically distinct than the analogous indicator for odd years. In addition, the interpopulation ratio in the general value of genetic diversity is almost always smaller than both the intraannual and interannual ratios, leading to a low level of interpopulation genetic differences. Cluster analysis reveals that most 2001–2004 samples are grouped separately from samples collected prior to 2000. In our opinion, the reason for this could be the turnover of a numerically dominant generation of northern Sea of Okhtosk pink salmon and the change in gene frequencies accompanying it.     

The relationship between allozyme and morphometric variation in pink salmon <Emphasis Type="Italic">Oncorhynchus gorbuscha</Emphasis> from Southern Sakhalin

The relationship between allozyme polymorphism and morphometric variation in pink salmon from Southern Sakhalin was examined in order to determine the effects of individual genes. Dramatic differences were found between individuals of some genotypes. For instance, the difference in average male body length between the two prevailing PGDH ^* genotypes reached 0.36σ, which corresponds to 5% contribution to the total variance of the trait. It would take only several generations for selection in favor of extreme phenotypes to rapidly shift the allele frequencies at loci of such a strong effect, which should be taken into account both in fishery management and in practical hatchery. Long-term selection can result in irreversible genetic changes in the population, which may be hazardous in the context of causing irreparable harm to the biological resources of the Earth.     

Sex ratio control in pink salmon (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Oncorhynchus gorbuscha</Emphasis> and chum salmon (<Emphasis Type="Italic">O. keta</Emphasis>) populations: The possible causes and mechanisms of changes in the sex ratio

Long-term changes in the sex ratio have been studied in pink salmon (Oncorhynchus gorbuscha and chum salmon (O. keta) populations of Kamchatka and Sakhalin. It has been demonstrated that these changes are an adaptation to population dynamics: an increase in the population size is accompanied by a shift towards a higher proportion of males; a decrease in population size, by a shift towards a higher proportion of females. The correspondence between morphological and molecular characters in populations of the two species has been analyzed in order to determine the mechanism of sex ratio control. In some pink salmon and chum salmon populations, there is a discrepancy between sex identifications based on morphological characters and molecular markers. This discrepancy is assumed to be accounted for by sex inversion mechanisms, which may be population-or region-specific. In two cases, it has been found that the sex ratio discrepancy in populations is related to the numbers of fish in subsequent generations. These findings suggest that sex inversion may be related to population size control.     

Reproduction efficiency and some characteristics of the spawning grounds of the pink salmon <Emphasis Type="Italic">Oncorhynchus gorbuscha</Emphasis> in the small salmon watercourse in southern Sakhalin

The peculiarities of the distribution of the freshwater ichthyofauna, bottom sediments and conditions at the spawning grounds, and the egg survivability rate of Oncorhynchus gorbuscha were studied in 2003?2012 in a typical salmon river on Sakhalin Island (Goluboi Ruchei brook, Aniva Bay, southern Sakhalin). The sites characterized by the highest survivability rate of the embryos of the pink salmon are inhabited by the freshwater fish community where the juveniles of masu salmon O. masu and whitespotted char Salvelinus leucomaenis dominate. The lengthway bed slope at this site is steeper compared to the sites with lower survivability rates (0.010?0.020 vs. 0.004?0.020?). The maximal positive correlation of the egg survivability rate to the flow velocity of the underflow has been registered for the depth of 30?40 cm, and the maximal negative correlation of the egg survivability rate has been registered to the bottom sediment temperature.     

Polymorphism of smolts of pink salmon <Emphasis Type="Italic">Oncorhynchs gorbuscha</Emphasis> in the Indera River (Kola Peninsula)

Pink salmon introduced into the White Sea started to exploit as spawning grounds middle and upper reaches of the river 20 years after its appearance in the Indera River. As a result of this, the migration pathway of smolts and late smolts appeared in addition to early smolts. The intraspecies polymorphism of smolts is confirmed by differences of early and late smolts by body length and weight, migration dates, food spectrum, and indices of stomach fullness. The food spectra of late juveniles of pink salmon coincide with those of parr of Atlantic salmon Salmo salar and of brown trout S. trutta. Greater abundance of late migrants of pink salmon may cause competition of these species for food.     

Local and Temporal Variation at the MHC I-<Emphasis Type="Italic">A1</Emphasis> Locus in Pink Salmon <Emphasis Type="Italic">Oncorhynchus gorbuscha</Emphasis> of Southern Sakhalin

In order to test the MHC I-A1 locus of the main histocompatiblity complex as an effective molecular marker for identification of populations of Far Eastern pink salmon, Oncorhynchus gorbuscha, the comparison of the allelic and genotypic frequencies between two neighboring populations of the Lyutoga and Taranay rivers (Aniva Bay, Sakhalin Island), as well as within the populations: within generation, between adjacent and distant generations, have been performed. It was revealed that temporal variation at MHC I-A1 is statistically insignificant in comparison between the samples of the juveniles sampled at different times during the downstream migration. It is also insignificant between the samples of juvenile and adult fish of the same generation, and between samples divided by a single and seven generations. At the same time, the samples of neighboring populations differ significantly. The possibility of differentiation of the populations on the local scale and temporal stability of the allele frequencies indicate the MHC I-A1 as valuable marker for the development of the population data bases. Inclusion of the MHC I-A1 into the panel of other markers (microsatellites, in particular) allows for considerable increase in the resolution power for identification as to which population an individual in the mixed sea catch belongs.     

Genetic markers of adaptive processes in the Far Eastern pink salmon <Emphasis Type="Italic">Oncorhynchus gorbuscha</Emphasis>: Allelic diversity at the locus of major histocompatibility complex MHC I-<Emphasis Type="Italic">A1</Emphasis>

To clarify allelic diversity at the locus of major histocompatibility complex MHC class I-A1 in the Far Eastern pink salmon Oncorhynchus gorbuscha, sequencing of the electrophoretic alleles isolated from the gel (DGGE alleles) was performed. In 47 individuals, the genotypes of which consisted of ten DGGE alleles, 18 MHC I-A1 nucleotide sequences were revealed, and thus, eight cryptic alleles not detected by electrophoresis were identified. Eleven of these alleles were identified earlier in pink salmon from Hokkaido, Alaska, and British Columbia, and seven, possibly, were unique to the populations from some Far Eastern regions. Six of the previously determined DGGE alleles corresponded to more than one nucleotide sequence. However, the sequences attributed to the same DGGE allele differed on average by less than 1 nucleotide. These findings point to sufficient sensitivity of the DGGE method, although the genetic diversity and differentiation estimates obtained with it will obviously be somewhat underestimated. Considerable predominance of nonsynonymous substitutions over the synonymous ones in the codons of the MHC I-A1 antigen-binding site confirms the presence of positive selection aimed at providing the population resistance to local spectrum of pathogens. Refinement of the allelic composition of the adaptively important MHC genetic marker will contribute to more complete understanding of the adaptive genetic structure of pink salmon as an important element of the overall population structure of the species.     

New combinations and typifications in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Bistorta</Emphasis>, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Persicaria</Emphasis>, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Polygonum,</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Rumex</Emphasis> (Polygonaceae)

New combinations are proposed in anticipation of the Polygonaceae treatment in the forthcoming volume of Intermountain Flora: Polygonum kelloggii var. esotericum, P. kelloggii var. watsonii , Rumex densiflorus var. pycnanthus , R. salicifolius var. utahensis, and R. occidentalis var. tomentellus. Typifications are proposed to facilitate ongoing studies in Polygonaceae and to maintain current usage.     

<Emphasis Type="Italic">Ty</Emphasis>1<Emphasis Type="Italic">/copia</Emphasis>- and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Ty</Emphasis>3<Emphasis Type="Italic">/gypsy</Emphasis>-like DNA sequences in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Helianthus </Emphasis>species

Two repeated DNA sequences isolated from a partial genomic DNA library of Helianthus annuus, p HaS13 and p HaS211, were shown to represent portions of the int gene of a Ty3 /gypsy retroelement and of the RNase-Hgene of a Ty1 /copia retroelement, respectively. Southern blotting patterns obtained by hybridizing the two probes to BglII- or DraI-digested genomic DNA from different Helianthus species showed p HaS13 and p HaS211 were parts of dispersed repeats at least 8 and 7 kb in length, respectively, that were conserved in all species studied. Comparable hybridization patterns were obtained in all species with p HaS13. By contrast, the patterns obtained by hybridizing p HaS211 clearly differentiated annual species from perennials. The frequencies of p HaS13- and p HaS211-related sequences in different species were 4.3x10(4)-1.3x10(5) copies and 9.9x10(2)-8.1x10(3) copies per picogram of DNA, respectively. The frequency of p HaS13-related sequences varied widely within annual species, while no significant difference was observed among perennial species. Conversely, the frequency variation of p HaS211-related sequences was as large within annual species as within perennials. Sequences of both families were found to be dispersed along the length of all chromosomes in all species studied. However, Ty3 /gypsy-like sequences were localized preferentially at the centromeric regions, whereas Ty1/ copia-like sequences were less represented or absent around the centromeres and plentiful at the chromosome ends. These findings suggest that the two sequence families played a role in Helianthusgenome evolution and species divergence, evolved independently in the same genomic backgrounds and in annual or perennial species, and acquired different possible functions in the host genomes.     

Genetic population structure of central Oregon Coast coho salmon (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Oncorhynchus kisutch</Emphasis>)

We surveyed microsatellite variation from 22 spawning populations of coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch) from the Oregon Coast to help identify populations for conservation planning. All of our samples were temporally replicated, with most samples obtained in 2000 and 2001. We had three goals: (1) to confirm the status of populations identified on the basis of spawning location and life history; (2) to estimate effective population sizes and migration rates in order to determine demographic independence at different spatial scales; and (3) to determine if releases of Washington hatchery coho salmon in the 1980's into Oregon Coast streams resulted in measurable introgression into nearby wild Oregon Coast coho populations. For the last question, our study included a hatchery broodstock sample from 1985, after the Puget Sound introduction, and a 1975 sample taken from the same area prior to the introduction. Our results generally supported previously hypothesized population structure. Most importantly, we found unique lake-rearing groups identified on the basis of a common life-history type were genetically related. Estimates of immigrant fraction using several different methods also generally supported previously identified populations. Estimates of effective population size were highly correlated with estimates of spawning abundance. The 1985 hatchery sample was genetically similar to contemporary Washington samples, and the contemporary Oregon Coast samples were similar to the 1975 Oregon Coast sample, suggesting that introductions of Washington coho salmon did not result in large scale introgression into Oregon populations.     

<Emphasis Type="Italic">Quinua</Emphasis> and Relatives (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Chenopodium</Emphasis> sect.<Emphasis Type="Italic">Chenopodium</Emphasis> subsect.<Emphasis Type="Italic">Celluloid</Emphasis>)

Traditionally viewed as an Andean grain crop,Chenopodium quinoa Willd. includes domesticated populations that are not Andean, and Andean populations that are not domesticated. Comparative analysis of leaf morphology and allozyme frequencies have demonstrated that Andean populations, both domesticated(quinua) and free-living(ajara), represent an exceptionally homogeneous unit that is well differentiated from allied domesticates of coastal Chile(quingua) and freeliving populations of the Argentine lowlands(C. hircinum). This pattern of relationships indicates that Andean populations represent a monophyletic crop/weed system that has possibly developed through cyclic differentiation (natural vs. human selection) and introgressive hybridization. Relative levels of variation suggest that this complex originated in the southern Andes, possibly from wild types allied withC. hircinum, with subsequent dispersal north to Colombia and south to the Chilean coast. Coastal populations were apparently isolated from post-dispersal differentiation and homogenization that occurred in the Andes. Other data point toward a center of origin in the northern Andes with secondary centers of genetic diversity subsequently developing in the southern Andes and the plains of Argentina. Comparative linkage of South American taxa, all tetraploid, with North American tetraploids of the subsection will eventually clarify this problem. While the possibility of a direct phyletic connection betweenC. quinoa and the Mexican domesticate(C. berlandieri subsp. nuttalliae,) cannot be excluded, available evidence indicates that the latter represents an autonomous lineage that is associated with the basal tetraploid, C. b. subsp.berlandieri, through var.sinuatum, whereas South American taxa show possible affinities to either var. zschackei or var.berlandieri. An extinct domesticate of eastern North America,C. b. subsp.jonesianum, represents either another instance of independent domestication, possibly from subsp. b. var.zschackei, or a northeastern outlier of subsp.nuttalliae.     

Floral development and systematic position of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Arillastrum</Emphasis>, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Allosyncarpia</Emphasis>, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Stockwellia</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Eucalyptopsis</Emphasis> (Myrtaceae)

We have investigated the floral ontogeny of Arillastrum, Allosyncarpia, Stockwellia and Eucalyptopsis (of the eucalypt group, Myrtaceae) using scanning electron microscopy and light microscopy. Several critical characters for establishing relationships between these genera and to the eucalypts have been determined. The absence of compound petaline primordia in Arillastrum, Allosyncarpia, Stockwellia and Eucalyptopsis excludes these taxa from the eucalypt clade. Post-anthesis circumscissile abscission of the hypanthium above the ovary in Stockwellia, Eucalyptopsis and Allosyncarpia is evidence that these three taxa form a monophyletic group; undifferentiated perianth parts and elongated fusiform buds are characters that unite Stockwellia and Eucalyptopsis as sister taxa. No floral characters clearly associate Arillastrum with either the eucalypt clade or the clade of Stockwellia, Eucalyptopsis and Allosyncarpia.We gratefully acknowledge Clyde Dunlop and Bob Harwood (Northern Territory Herbarium) for collecting specimens of Allosyncarpia, and Bruce Gray (Atherton) for collecting specimens of Stockwellia. The Australian National Herbarium (CANB) kindly lent herbarium specimens of Eucalyptopsis for examination. This research was supported by a University of Melbourne Research Development Grant to Andrew Drinnan.     

<Emphasis Type="Italic">In silico</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">in situ</Emphasis> characterization of the zebrafish (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Danio rerio</Emphasis>) <Emphasis Type="Italic">gnrh3</Emphasis> (sGnRH) gene

Background

Gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH) is responsible for stimulation of gonadotropic hormone (GtH) in the hypothalamus-pituitary-gonadal axis (HPG). The regulatory mechanisms responsible for brain specificity make the promoter attractive for in silico analysis and reporter gene studies in zebrafish (Danio rerio).

Results

We have characterized a zebrafish [Trp⁷, Leu⁸] or salmon (s) GnRH variant, gnrh 3. The gene includes a 1.6 Kb upstream regulatory region and displays the conserved structure of 4 exons and 3 introns, as seen in other species. An in silico defined enhancer at -976 in the zebrafish promoter, containing adjacent binding sites for Oct-1, CREB and Sp1, was predicted in 2 mammalian and 5 teleost GnRH promoters. Reporter gene studies confirmed the importance of this enhancer for cell specific expression in zebrafish. Interestingly the promoter of human GnRH-I, known as mammalian GnRH (mGnRH), was shown capable of driving cell specific reporter gene expression in transgenic zebrafish.

Conclusions

The characterized zebrafish Gnrh3 decapeptide exhibits complete homology to the Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) GnRH-III variant. In silico analysis of mammalian and teleost GnRH promoters revealed a conserved enhancer possessing binding sites for Oct-1, CREB and Sp1. Transgenic and transient reporter gene expression in zebrafish larvae, confirmed the importance of the in silico defined zebrafish enhancer at -976. The capability of the human GnRH-I promoter of directing cell specific reporter gene expression in zebrafish supports orthology between GnRH-I and GnRH-III.

     

Distribution of Masu Salmon <Emphasis Type="Italic">Oncorhynchus masou</Emphasis> (Salmonidae) in Amur River Basin

The presented data on the distribution of the masu salmon Oncorhynchus masou in the Amur River Basin are collected in 1976–2015. In the analyzed region the species’ spawning range includes the lower part of the Amur River basin from the rivers flowing into the Amur estuary to the basins of the Anyui and Amgun’ Rivers in their middle courses. The information on the catch of a masu salmon specimen in the Khor River Basin (approximately 1300 km from the Amur River mouth) in 2015 is presented. It is assumed that the total Amur population does not exceed several thousand of adult anadromous fish.     

<Emphasis Type="Italic">Agrobacterium</Emphasis><Emphasis Type="Italic">tumefaciens</Emphasis>-mediated transformation of callus cells of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Crataegus</Emphasis><Emphasis Type="Italic">aronia</Emphasis>

A genetic transformation system has been developed for callus cells of Crataegus aronia using Agrobacterium tumefaciens. Callus culture was established from internodal stem segments incubated on Murashige and Skoog (MS) medium supplemented with 5 mg l⁻¹ Indole-3-butyric acid (IBA) and 0.5 mg l⁻¹ 6-benzyladenine (BA). In order to optimize the callus culture system with respect to callus growth and coloration, different types and concentrations of plant growth regulators were tested. Results indicated that the best average fresh weight of red colored callus was obtained on MS medium supplemented with 2 mg l⁻¹ 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) and 1.5 mg l⁻¹ kinetin (Kin) (callus maintenance medium). Callus cells were co-cultivated with Agrobacterium harboring the binary plasmid pCAMBIA1302 carrying the mgfp5 and hygromycin phosphotransferase (hptII) genes conferring green fluorescent protein (GFP) activity and hygromycin resistance, respectively. Putative transgenic calli were obtained 4 weeks after incubation of the co-cultivated explants onto maintenance medium supplemented with 50 mg l⁻¹ hygromycin. Molecular analysis confirmed the integration of the transgenes in transformed callus. To our knowledge, this is the first time to report an Agrobacterium-mediated transformation system in Crataegus aronia.     

Adaptation of cultured salmon <Emphasis Type="Italic">Salmo salar</Emphasis> (Salmonidae) yearlings to natural environments

The process of adaptation of the yearling Atlantic salmon Salmo salar cultured under the farming conditions in the Umba fish hatchery to the natural environments has been studied during a 1-year period after releasing them into the river. The significant differences in a range of the morphophysiological parameters between the hatchery-reared juveniles and their wild-origin peers, which were revealed immediately before the release into the river and 1 month later, are gradually reduced. The index of body condition, the liver index, and the body cavity fat content are normalized 4 months later; 13 months later, the other analyzed parameters (the hemoglobin concentration and the indices of heart, gills, and pectoral fins) are brought back into the normal ranges. The behavioral patterns of the hatchery-reared and wild-origin juveniles remain different during the whole observation period, since the behavioral habits acquired under the farming conditions, when compared to the developmental abnormalities, more commonly affect the juvenile fish survival in the natural environments.     

Isolation and characterization of the <Emphasis Type="Italic">Larix gmelinii </Emphasis><Emphasis Type="Italic">ANGUSTIFOLIA</Emphasis> (<Emphasis Type="Italic">LgAN</Emphasis>) gene

ANGUSTIFOLIA (AN), a plant homolog of C-terminal binding protein, controls the polar elongation of leaf cells and the trichome-branching pattern in Arabidopsis thaliana. In the present study, degenerate PCR was used to isolate an ortholog of AN, referred to as LgAN, from larch (Larix gmelinii). The LgAN cDNA is predicted to encode a protein of 646 amino acids that shows striking sequence similarity to AN proteins from other plants. The predicted amino acid sequence has a conserved NAD-dependent 2-hydroxy acid dehydrogenase (D2-HDH) motif and a plant AN-specific LxCxE/D motif at its N-terminus, as well as a plant-specific long C-terminal region. The LgAN gene is a single-copy gene that is expressed in all larch tissues. Expression of the LgAN cDNA rescued the leaf width and trichome-branching pattern defects in the angustifolia-1 (an-1) mutant of Arabidopsis, showing that the LgAN gene has effects complementary to those of AN. These results suggest that the LgAN gene has the same function as the AN gene.     

Pedogamy in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Neidium</Emphasis> (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Bacillariophyceae</Emphasis>)

Single (unpaired) vegetative cells of freshwater pennate diatom Neidium cf. ampliatum differentiated into gametangia and produced a single zygote (auxospore) via a pedogamic process. The gametic nuclei fused after auxospore expansion had begun. The auxospore expanded in parallel to the apical axis of the gametangium.