Structure of bovine milk lipoprotein lipase

The primary structure of bovine milk lipoprotein lipase (bLPL) was determined by alignment of peptides produced by tryptic digestion, Staphylococcus aureus V8 protease digestion, and cyanogen bromide cleavage. bLPL consists of 450 amino acid residues. Most tryptic peptides were isolated and analyzed, except for the dipeptide, Glu-Lys (position 423-424), and the 2 Lys at positions 416 and 488. Peptides resulting from digestion by S. aureus V8 protease and cyanogen bromide cleavage filled the missing part and completed the primary sequence of bLPL. The NH2 terminus of bLPL was determined to be Asp by sequencing the intact protein with a gas phase sequencer for up to 30 residues, whereas the COOH terminus was identified as Gly through, carboxyl peptidase Y cleavage. The enzyme contains 10 cysteine residues, all of which exist in disulfide linkages. They are formed between Cys29 and Cys42, Cys218 and Cys241, Cys266 and Cys285, Cys277, and Cys280, and Cys420 and Cys440. The sites of N-glycosylation were identified at Asn44 and Asn361. In accordance with a common structural homology of serine-type esterases, -G-X-S-X-G- (Yang, C. Y., Manoogian, D., Pao, Q., Lee, F., Knapp, R. D., Gotto, A. M., Jr., and Pownall, H. J. (1987) J. Biol. Chem., 262, 3086-3191), the active site serine of bLPL was assigned to the serine at position 134. The chymotrypsin nick of bLPL was determined to be between residues 390 and 391. A model of the enzyme is proposed on the basis of our data and available chemical data.     

Monoclonal antibodies to bovine milk lipoprotein lipase. Evidence for proteolytic degradation of the native enzyme

Lipoprotein lipase was purified from bovine skim milk by chromatography on heparin-Sepharose. Polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis showed a single protein with an apparent molecular weight of 55,000 in the trailing edge of the elution profile; fractions in the leading edge contained additional proteins with molecular weights of 36,000 and 18,000-22,000. Nine monoclonal antibodies were prepared against the 55,000-dalton protein. By immunoblotting, we show that the Mr = 18,000-22,000 components share common antigen determinants with the 55,000-dalton protein, suggesting that they represent proteolytic degradation products. Incubation of partially purified lipoprotein lipase for 24 h at 37 degrees C results in breakdown of the 55,000-dalton protein with concomitant enrichment in lower Mr components; the proteolytic activity is prevented by incubating the milk with phenylmethane, sulfonyl fluoride prior to chromatography on heparin-Sepharose. This study shows the presence of milk proteases which co-purify and degrade lipoprotein lipase. We suggest that this degradation could account for part of the known instability of the enzyme.     

Kinetics of bovine milk lipoprotein lipase and the mechanism of enzyme activation by apolipoprotein C-II

The kinetics of bovine milk lipoprotein lipase (LPL) were studied in order to determine the reaction mechanism of this enzyme. Reaction velocities were determined at varying concentrations of emulsified trioleoylglycerol (TG) and different fixed concentrations of apolipoprotein C-II (C-II) or at varying C-II concentrations and different fixed concentrations of TG. Neither the apparent Km(TG) nor the apparent Km(C-II) was affected by varying the concentrations of C-II or TG, respectively. However, C-II increased the apparent Vmax for the enzyme about 20-fold. The following kinetic parameters were calculated from Lineweaver-Burk plots: Km(C-II) = 2.5 X 10(-8) M and Km (TG) = 2.5 X 10(-3) M. The dissociation constant (KS) of the enzyme-TG binary complex was determined from Scatchard plots to be 7.6 X 10(-8) M. Heparin was found to be a competitive dead-end inhibitor against both TG and C-II. Tricapryloylglycerol represented a competitive inhibitor against TG but a noncompetitive inhibitor against C-II. C-II was shown to interact with dansylated bovine milk LPL, increasing its fluorescent emission by inducing a conformational change in the enzyme. Based on these studies, it was concluded that the LPL-catalyzed reaction follows a random, bireactant, rapid-equilibrium mechanism and the role of C-II in the activation process involves an increase in the catalytic rate constant (Kp) resulting from conformational changes of LPL induced by C-II.     

Phospholipase activity of bovine milk lipoprotein lipase on phospholipid vesicles: influence of apolipoproteins C-II and C-III.

The effect of human plasma apolipoproteins C-II and C-III on the hydrolytic activity of lipoprotein lipase from bovine milk was determined using dimyristoyl phosphatidylcholine (DMPC) vesicles as substrate. In the absence of apoC-II or C-III, lipoprotein lipase has limited phospholipase activity. When the vesicles were preincubated with apoC-II and then phospholipase activity determined, there was a time dependent release of lysolecithin; activity was dependent upon both apoC-II and lipoprotein lipase concentrations. The addition of apoC-III to DMPC did not stimulate phospholipase activity. We conclude that apoC-II has an activator effect on the phospholipase activity of lipoprotein lipase and that the mechanism is beyond that of simply altering the lateral compressibility of the lipid.     

Comparison of the phospholipase activity of bovine milk lipoprotein lipase against rat plasma very low density and high density lipoprotein.

The hydrolytic activity of a lipoprotein lipase from bovine milk against triacylglycerol and phosphatidylcholine of rat plasma very low density lipoprotein was determined and compared to that against phosphatidylcholine of high density lipoprotein. 85--90% of the triacylglycerol in very low density lipoprotein were hydrolyzed to fatty acids and 25--35% of the phosphatidylcholine to lysophosphatidylcholine. High density lipoprotein phosphatidylcholine was only minimally susceptible to the enzyme. Even with high amounts of enzyme and prolonged incubation periods, lysophosphatidylcholine generation did not exceed 2--4% of the original amounts of labeled phosphatidylcholine in the high density lipoprotein. We conclude that phospholipids in high density lipoprotein are not substrates for the phospholipase activity of this lipoprotein lipase. These observations suggest that factors other than the presence of apolipoprotein C-II and of glycerophosphatides are of importance for the activity of lipoprotein lipases.     

The effects of bovine serum albumin and oleic acid on rat pancreatic lipase and bovine milk lipoprotein lipase

The effects of bovine serum albumin on rat pancreatic lipase and bovine milk lipoprotein lipase were studied in a system of triacylglycerol emulsions stabilized by 1 1 mg/ml albumin. At concentrations greater than 1 mg/ml, albumin inhibited the activity of pancreatic lipase and interfered with enzyme binding to emulsified triacylglycerol particles. These effects could be countered by occupying five fatty acid binding sites on albumin with oleic acid. Following an initial lag period which increased with albumin concentrations, enzyme activity escaped from inhibition presumably due to saturation of fatty acid sites on albumin with oleic acid. Pancreatic lipase was active at 1 mg/ml albumin and 1 mM emulsion-bound oleic acid in the system. The effects of albumin on lipoprotein lipase were diametrically opposed to the above; enzyme activity was completely inhibited by 0.1 mM oleic acid, it increased with increasing fatty acid-free albumin concentrations and decreased as the fatty acid sites on albumin were filled. At 1 mM oleic acid and no added albumin the enzyme failed to bind at the oil water interface, whereas fatty acid-free or saturated albumin had no effect on binding. It is concluded that if the inhibition of pancreatic lipase by albumin is due to the inaccessibility of the enzyme to an oil-water interface blocked by denatured albumin, then albumin saturated with oleic acid would seem to be protected from unfolding at the interface and more readily displaced by the lipase. Pancreatic lipase and lipoprotein lipase, although sharing a number of common features, are distinct enzymes both functionally and mechanistically.     

Monoclonal antibodies against human low density lipoprotein. Stoichiometric binding studies using Fab fragments

Because of its physical properties, apolipoprotein B (apo B) has remained poorly characterized. In an attempt to elucidate apo B structure, the Fab fragments of 3 different monoclonal anti-human apo B antibodies were tested in a quantitative assay for their binding to human low density lipoprotein (LDL). In each case the assay gave a linear Scatchard plot with a maximum of 1 Fab fragment bound to a single LDL particle. This result favors an LDL model containing a single large Mr apo B protein, which is not composed of multiple, identical, small Mr subunits.     

Kinetics of human and bovine milk lipoprotein lipase and the mechanism of enzyme activation by apolipoprotein C-II

The kinetics of human and bovine milk lipoprotein lipase (HM-LPL and BM-LPL, respectively) were compared by varying apolipoprotein C-II (C-II) or triacylglycerol (TG) concentrations. The apparent Km (TG) and Km (C-II) for HM-LPL were 2.2 and 6.7-fold higher than for BM-LPL. Plots of 1/v vs 1/[TG] or 1/[C-II] intercepted the respective abscissas at the same points: C-II had no effect on Km (TG) and TG had no effect on Km (C-II). Replots of slope 1/s vs 1/[C-II] gave straight lines which yielded KA values identical to Km (C-II). It is concluded that the HM-LPL system follows a random, bireactant, rapid equilibrium mechanism as shown previously for BM-LPL.     

Preparation of a homogeneous and stable form of bovine milk lipoprotein lipase

Lipoprotein lipase was purified to homogeneity from bovine skim milk by a two-step procedure using chromatography on heparin-Sepharose. As determined by gradient-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis in sodium dodecyl sulfate, purified lipoprotein lipase showed a single band with an apparent molecular weight of 55,000. The use of Triton N-101 in the washing buffers was the major improvement from previously reported purification procedures that resulted in a stable homogeneous preparation of the enzyme.     

Bacterial expression and purification of recombinant bovine Fab fragments.

We have previously described a recombinant phagemid expression vector, pComBov, designed for the production of native sequence bovine monoclonal antibodies (mAb) generated by antibody phage display. Bovine mAb Fab fragments isolated from libraries constructed using pComBov in Escherichia coli strain XL1-Blue, which is routinely used for antibodies expressed on the surface of phage, were expressed at very low yields. Therefore, a study was undertaken to determine optimal growth conditions for maximal expression of bovine Fab fragments in E. coli. By varying the E. coli strain, and the temperature and length of the culture growth, we were able to substantially increase the yield of soluble Fab fragments. A high yield of Fab fragments was found in the culture growth medium, which enabled us to devise a rapid and simple single-step method for the purification of native (nondenatured) Fabs based on immobilized metal affinity chromatography against a six-histidine amino acid carboxyl-terminal extension of the heavy-chain constant region. Using these methods we were able to express and purify antigen-specific bovine Fab fragments from E. coli.     

Effects of C apoproteins on the activity of endothelium-bound lipoprotein lipase.

Rat apoprotein C-II activated the hydrolysis of triacylglycerol in apoprotein-depleted chylomicrons by lipoprotein lipase in vitro and in the perfused rat heart. Apoproteins C-I and C-III-3 inhibited the hydrolysis of the triacylglycerol moiety in intact and apoprotein C-II-re-activated chylomicrons in vitro, but had no effect on the hydrolysis in situ.     

Immunological studies of the fragments of bovine cartilage proteoglycan produced by chondroitinase-trypsin digestion.

The peptidyl transferase activity of polysomes from Escherichia coli, rabbit reticulocytes and chick embryos, assayed in the fragment reaction, is 3- to 10-fold lower than the corresponding activity of single ribosomes. The polysomal peptidyl transferase activity is restored in full under conditions of in vitro protein synthesis that result in conversion of polysomes to single ribosomes. Thus, the peptidyl transferase center is masked in translating ribosomes. Unmasking of peptidyl transferase, however, does not require the release of ribosomes from messenger RNA: it is also seen upon treatment of polysomes with puromycin, under conditions in which polysomes remain intact. Apparently, release of nascent polypeptide chains is sufficient to allow access of formylmethionyl hexanucleotide substrate to the peptidyl transferase site.     

The low density lipoprotein receptor-related protein/alpha 2-macroglobulin receptor binds and mediates catabolism of bovine milk lipoprotein lipase.

Lipoprotein lipase (LPL), the major lipolytic enzyme involved in the conversion of triglyceride-rich lipoproteins to remnants, was found to compete with binding of activated alpha 2-macroglobulin (alpha 2M*) to the low density lipoprotein receptor-related protein (LRP)/alpha 2-macroglobulin receptor. Bovine milk LPL displaced both 125I-labeled alpha 2M* and 39-kDa alpha 2M receptor-associated protein (RAP) from the surface of cultured mutant fibroblasts lacking LDL receptors with apparent KI values at 4 degrees C of 6.8 and 30 nM, respectively. Furthermore, LPL inhibited the cellular degradation of 125I-alpha 2M* at 37 degrees C. Because both alpha 2M* and RAP interact with LRP, these data suggest that LPL binds specifically to this receptor. This was further supported by observing that an immunoaffinity-isolated polyclonal antibody against LRP blocked cellular degradation of 125I-LPL in a dose-dependent manner. In addition, 125I-LPL bound to highly purified LRP in a solid-phase assay with a KD of 18 nM, and this binding could be partially displaced with alpha 2M* (KI = 7 nM) and RAP (KI = 3 nM). Taken together, these data establish that LPL binds with high affinity to LRP and undergoes LRP-mediated cellular uptake. The implication of these findings for lipoprotein catabolism in vivo may be important if LRP binding is preserved when LPL is attached to lipoproteins. If so, LPL might facilitate LRP-mediated clearance of lipoproteins.     

Comparative studies of vertebrate lipoprotein lipase: a key enzyme of very low density lipoprotein metabolism

Lipoprotein lipase (LIPL or LPL; E.C.3.1.1.34) serves a dual function as a triglyceride lipase of circulating chylomicrons and very-low-density lipoproteins (VLDL) and facilitates receptor-mediated lipoprotein uptake into heart, muscle and adipose tissue. Comparative LPL amino acid sequences and protein structures and LPL gene locations were examined using data from several vertebrate genome projects. Mammalian LPL genes usually contained 9 coding exons on the positive strand. Vertebrate LPL sequences shared 58-99% identity as compared with 33-49% sequence identities with other vascular triglyceride lipases, hepatic lipase (HL) and endothelial lipase (EL). Two human LPL N-glycosylation sites were conserved among seven predicted sites for the vertebrate LPL sequences examined. Sequence alignments, key amino acid residues and conserved predicted secondary and tertiary structures were also studied. A CpG island was identified within the 5'-untranslated region of the human LPL gene which may contribute to the higher than average (×4.5 times) level of expression reported. Phylogenetic analyses examined the relationships and potential evolutionary origins of vertebrate lipase genes, LPL, LIPG (encoding EL) and LIPC (encoding HL) which suggested that these have been derived from gene duplication events of an ancestral neutral lipase gene, prior to the appearance of fish during vertebrate evolution. Comparative divergence rates for these vertebrate sequences indicated that LPL is evolving more slowly (2-3 times) than for LIPC and LIPG genes and proteins.     

Effects of dietary saturated and polyunsaturated fat on lipoprotein lipase and hepatic triglyceride lipase activity

The effects of saturated and polyunsaturated dietary fat on the lipolytic activity of post-heparin plasma, lipoprotein lipase (LPL) and hepatic triglyceride lipase (HTGL) were studied in the rat. The lipolytic activity was studied from 0 to 60 min using labelled chylomicrons as the substrate. Triacylglycerol hydrolysis rate was higher for the plasma of rats fed high fat diets (14% fat by weight). Chylomicrons of rats fed saturated or unsaturated fats were hydrolyzed at the same rate within the first 15 min but afterwards hydrolysis of chylomicrons of rats fed saturated fat was slower. The activities of LPL and HTGL were increased by high fat diets. Unsaturated fat increased more LPL activity than saturated fat conversely, HTGL activity was enhanced more by saturated fat than by unsaturated fat.