Leaping behavior of Pithecia pithecia and Chiropotes satanas in eastern Venezuela

I observed leaping behavior in the white-faced saki (Pithecia pithecia) and the black-bearded saki (Chiropotes satanas satanas) for 15 and 10 months, respectively, as part of a larger study of positional behavior in the tribe Pitheciini. I used focal animal instantaneous sampling to observe the two species on separate islands in their natural habitat at Guri Lake, Venezuela. Leaping behavior correlates with patterns of forest use and body size, and differences between the species relate more to habitat preferences than to habitat differences per se. Pithecia usually chose vertical or highly angled supports of lower tree portions for take-off and landing, and took off from a stationary posture. Chiropotes took off from the main crown or terminal branches, gaining momentum from locomotor movement before performing a leaping take-off. Pithecia's vertical body orientation and longer leap distance allowed it to assume a mid-flight tuck to prepare for a hindlimb-first landing onto a solid support, and to absorb landing forces with its relatively longer hindlimbs. Chiropotes remained more pronograde throughout its leaps, and minimized landing forces by landing on all four limbs onto numerous flexible supports in the terminal branches. The smaller-bodied P. pithecia is specialized for vertical clinging and leaping, and exhibits behavioral and morphological parallels with other vertical clingers and leapers. The larger C. satanas is a generalized leaper that lacks morphological specializations for leaping. Pithecia's use of solid supports in the lower tree portions allows it to move quietly through the forest-one of a suite of behaviors related to predator avoidance. This example of variation within one behavioral category has implications for devising locomotor classifications and interpreting fossil remains.     

Behavioral effects of introducing pied tamarin (Saguinus bicolor) to black howler monkey (Alouatta caraya) and white-faced saki (Pithecia pithecia) in a zoological park

Mixed-species primate exhibits are becoming more common in zoological parks as a means to display a diverse array of animals both more naturalistically and with more economy of space. Here, we describe behavioral changes during the introduction process of a pair of pied tamarins (Saguinus bicolor) to an established group of black howler monkeys (Allouatta caraya) and white-faced saki monkeys (Pithecia pithecia). Data were collected during six phases, representing introductions among the various species and to exhibit space and off-exhibit holding. The pied tamarins were consistently the most active of the three species. Although activity levels of the howler and saki monkeys remained constant throughout, that of the tamarins declined as the introduction progressed. Several episodes of aggression between the tamarins and the sakis were observed, but did not coincide with patterns predicted by previous intra-specific introductions. The three-species mix remained stable for several months; however, escalating aggression ultimately led to the removal of the sakis from the mixed-species exhibit. Despite our mixed results, we contend that only through continued trials, coupled with careful and systematic monitoring, can we ultimately identify stable mixes of species.     

Selected aspects of female white-faced saki (Pithecia pithecia) reproductive biology in captivity

Little is known regarding the reproductive biology of the white-faced saki. Although sakis have been in zoos since the mid-1970s, little attention has been paid to the reproductive biology of this threatened species. This study describes the results of a 3-year study of the reproduction of the white-faced saki in captivity. Using noninvasive methods to determine levels of estrone conjugates (E₁C) and pregnanediol-3-glucuronide (PdG) in daily urine samples, we have characterized the female reproductive cycle of this species. Nonconceptive ovarian cycles were 16.95 ± 1.57 (SD) days, gestational length was 146.1 ± 5.2 (SD) days, and the length of lactationally induced infertility varied among females but averaged 163 ± 40.6 (SD) days. Attempts to accelerate puberty by pairing a young female with an adult male was without effect. Puberty occurred at 32 months of age in one female. This study provides information that enhances our understanding of the reproductive biology of this species. © 1995 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Novel gamma-1 herpesviruses identified in free-ranging new world monkeys (golden-handed tamarin [Saguinus midas], squirrel monkey [Saimiri sciureus], and white-faced saki [Pithecia pithecia]) in French Guiana

The recent finding of a novel Epstein-Barr virus-related lymphocryptovirus (CalHV-3) in a captive colony of common marmoset (Callithrix jacchus) in the United States modifies the view that the host range of lymphocryptovirus is restricted to humans and Old World primates. We investigated the presence of Epstein-Barr virus-related viruses in 79 samples of New World monkeys caught in the wild, including six species of the Cebidae family and one of the Callitrichidae, living in the rain forest of French Guiana. Using a degenerate consensus PCR method for the herpesvirus DNA polymerase gene, we identified three novel lymphocryptoviruses from golden-handed tamarin (Saguinus midas) of the Callitrichidae family and squirrel monkey (Saimiri sciureus) and white-faced saki (Pithecia pithecia) of the Cebidae family. With the CalHV-3 strain, these three novel viruses constitute a well-supported phylogenetic clade in the Lymphocryptovirus genus, which is clearly distinct from the lineage of Old World lymphocryptovirus, hosted by catarrhine monkeys and humans. In tamarins, the prevalence of the novel lymphocryptovirus was more than 50%, indicating that it circulates well in the wild population, perhaps due to specific ecoethological patterns such as confrontations and intergroup migration. The detection and partial molecular characterization of the polymerase gene of three novel Gamma-1-Herpesvirinae from New World monkeys caught in the wild clearly indicate that free-ranging populations of platyrrhine are natural hosts of lymphocryptoviruses. Further characterization of these novel viruses will provide new insight not only into the origin and evolution of Gammaherpesvirinae but also into their pathogenicity.     

Observations of hand preference in wild groups of white-faced sakis (Pithecia pithecia) in Suriname

Hand preference is well observed in humans and some primates. Unlike many other primates, however, humans show a consistent hand preference across a variety of tasks, and a distinct right-handed skew at the population level. Although there are a moderate number of published studies, primate hand preference literature is unbalanced by the large number of studies on only a few species. No previous studies have addressed hand preference in white-faced sakis (WFS; Pithecia pithecia). We followed three habituated groups of wild WFS in Suriname and recorded individual hand preference for six different manual behaviors. There was no consistent hand preference across a range of uni-manual behaviors for any individual. Likewise, there were significantly more ambidextrous individuals in the population than expected (χ(2) (df = 2) = 11.2, P = 0.004) and thus, no population level hand preference. Our findings contribute baseline data to the debate of primate hand lateralization, and support the notion that lateralization of hand function does not characterize all species.     

Digesta passage and fiber digestibility in captive white-faced sakis (Pithecia pithecia)

Wild white-faced sakis (Pithecia pithecia) ingest primarily seeds that provide a diet that is lipid-rich and moderately high in dietary fiber. Although little anatomical information is available on sakis, evidence from other vertebrate seed predators suggests that such a diet is correlated with adaptations in gut morphology or physiology. Milton [1984] reported a 20 hr transit time (TT=transit time or time of first appearance in feces) of a particulate marker for a single monk saki (Pithecia monachus). This suggests that TT for Pithecia sakis may be four to five times longer than what has been reported for soft-fruit-eating platyrrhines, such as Ateles and Cebus. During a captive study, we calculated an average TT of 14.7+/-0.4 hr (n=5 trials started in the evening) for a chromic oxide (Cr(2)O(3)) marker that follows liquid digesta and TTs of 14.5 hr (trial started the previous evening) and 23.0 hr (trial started the previous morning) for two trials using particulate markers. Mean retention time (MRT) for the liquid marker ranged from 15.3 hr to 37.7 hr in four trials that lasted longer than 90 hr. Marker recovery was incomplete for the particulate markers in these trials, and thus MRT could only be determined for the liquid phase marker. Three 5-day trials on a low-fiber, blended diet revealed high fiber fraction digestibilities (neutral detergent fiber (NDF)=77.4% and acid detergent fiber (ADF)=74.4%). Data collected for this study and nutritional data from wild sakis suggest that pitheciin seed predators may have a potential for fiber digestibility that is intermediate between ripe-pulp frugivores and folivores.     

Scent-marking behaviour in free-ranging golden-faced saki monkeys, Pithecia pithecia chrysocephala: sex differences and context

Scent-marking behaviour of golden-faced saki monkey, Pithecia pithecia chrysocephala , was observed intermittently between 1987 and 1990 for a family group in a Central Amazonian forest fragment. Of 95 scent-marking events (during 275.5 hours of observation), throat-and-chest rubbing accounted for all except one anogenital rubbing. Nine of the throat-and-chest markings also involved touching groin with hands and eight markings (including the anogenital), urinating on the marked branch. Marking behaviour is strongly sex related, with the adult male making 88.4% of the markings. Scent-marking frequency by the adult male increased during breeding periods. Scent-marking behaviour seems related to courtship, and possibly stimulates sexual behaviour. All regularly marked spots consisted of horizontal branches on commonly travelled routes. Eleven occurred in feeding trees and lianas, but none in sleeping trees. Scent-marking behaviour in the monkeys studied here was not related to intergroup encounters and probably did not have a territorial function, although it may do so where different groups interact.     

Effects of non toxic doses of acyclovir on nitric oxide and cellular death responses in herpesvirus types 1 and 2 infected hep-2 cells

Herpes simplex virus type-1 (HSV-1) and type-2 (HSV-2) are among the most "successful" pathogens and code for a variety of proteins to direct the apoptosis/necrosis responses of the cells they infect. Nitric oxide (NO) is an important intracellular signaling molecule in pathological processes. Acyclovir (ACV) is a chain terminator that targets the viral DNA polymerase as an antiviral agent. In this study, NO signals, and apoptosis/necrosis responses of HEp-2 cells were compared when infected by HSV-1 and -2 for 24 hours against non toxic doses (starting from 48.8, 24.4, 12.2, 6.1, 3 to 1.5 microg/mL) of ACV. In 48.8, 24.4 and 12.2 microg/mL of ACV, HSV-1 had an "upregulating effect" whereas HSV-2 had a "downregulating effect" on NO production, and in 6.1, 3 and 1.5 microg/mL of ACV HSV-1 had a "down-regulating effect" whereas HSV-2 had an "upregulating effect" on NO responses (HSV-1 had a "downregulating effect" on NO production whereas HSV-2 had an "upregulating effect" on NO production without any ACV). In 48.8, 24.4 and 12.2 microg/mL of ACV, HSV-1 had an "anti-apoptotic effect" whereas HSV-2 had a stimulation on "apoptotic effect", and in 6.1, 3 and 1.5 microg/mL of ACV HSV-1 had an "apoptotic effect" and HSV-2 turned to "its natural viral apoptotic effect level" (HSV-1 had an "natural viral apoptotic effect" whereas HSV-2 had a "natural viral apoptotic effect" on apoptosis response without any ACV). In 48.8, and 24.4 microg/mL of ACV, HSV-1 had significant "necrotic effect" on necrotic cellular death, "necrosis" increased in 12.2, 6.1, 3 and 1.5 microg/mL of ACV (HSV-1 had a negligible "necrotic effect" on HEp-2 cells alone), and HSV-2 had a "natural viral necrotic effect" alone; and also in all non toxic ACV concentrations. These results showed that HSV-1 and -2 had different "strategies" on apoptosis/necrosis and NO with and without non toxic ACV. These differences deserve further studies in order to explain the interactions between apoptotic/anti apoptotic, necrotic genes and NO, and ACV in HSV-1 and HSV-2 infections respectively.     

Locomotor behavior and skeletal morphology of two sympatric pitheciine monkeys,Pithecia pithecia and Chiropotes satanas

Field observations of two sympatric pitheciine species reveal that the positional repertoire of the white-faced saki, Pithecia pithecia, is dominated by leaping behaviors, whereas the bearded saki, Chiropotes satanas, is predominantly quadrupedal. Examination and comparison of the postcranial skeletal morphologies and limb proportions of these species display numerous features associated with their respective locomotor behaviors. These observations accord with associations found in other primate and mammalian groups and with predictions based on theoretical and experimental biomechanics. Preliminary observations of the skeletal morphology of Cacajao calvus demonstrate a marked similarity to that of Chiropotes. The fossil platyrrhine Cebupithecia sarmientoi displays greater similarity to Pithecia, suggesting that its positional repertoire also included significant leaping and clinging behaviors.     

The chromosomal location of rDNA in selected lower primates.

Hybridization in stiu was used to identify the chromosomes that carry rDNA in representative lower primates, including the baboons, Papio cynocephalus and Papio hamadryas; the colobus monkey, Colobus polykomos; the tree shrew, Tupaia glis; the lemur, Lemur fulvis; the saki, Pithecia pithecia; the marmoset, Saguinus nigricollis, and the spider monkey, Ateles geoffroyi. The marker chromosome, common to the Cercopithecines studied to date, carries the rDNA in the baboons. Another marker chromosome carries rDNA in a South American species, the spider monkey. A multichromosomal distribution of rDNA was demonstrated in the tree shrew, lemur, saki, and marmoset. None of the rDNA-containing chromosomes in the prosimians and New World monkeys show homology to the chromosomes that carry rDNA in the Hominids, Pongids, or Old World monkeys.     

Early passage neonatal and adult keratinocytes are sensitive to apoptosis induced by infection with an ICP27-null mutant of herpes simplex virus 1

Herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) is a enveloped, double stranded DNA virus that is the causative agent of various diseases including cold sores, encephalitis, and ocular keratitis. Previous research has determined that HSV-1 modulates cellular apoptotic pathways. Apoptosis is triggered in infected cells early in infection; however, later in the infection the apoptotic response is suppressed due to the expression of several viral apoptotic antagonists. This sets us a delicate balance between pro- and anti-apoptotic processes during the lytic phase of infection. Several studies have demonstrated that the apoptotic balance can be shifted during infection of certain cell types, leading to apoptosis of the infected cells (HSV-1-dependent apoptosis). For example, HEp-2 cells infected with an ICP27-null recombinant HSV-1 virus undergo HSV-1-dependent apoptosis. Differences in the sensitivity to HSV-1-dependent apoptosis have been revealed. Although many tumor cells have been found to be highly sensitive to this apoptotic response, with the exception hematological cells, all primary human cells tested prior to this study have been shown to be resistant to HSV-1-dependent apoptosis. Here, we demonstrate that early passage neonatal and adult human keratinocytes, which are usually the first cells to encounter HSV-1 in human infection and support the lytic stage of the life cycle, display membrane blebbing and ballooning, chromatin condensation, caspase activation, and cleavage of cellular caspase substrates when infected with an ICP27-null recombinant of HSV-1. Furthermore, caspase activation is needed for the efficient apoptotic response. These results suggest that apoptotic machinery may be a target for modulating HSV-disease in patients.     

Suppression of apoptotic DNA fragmentation in herpes simplex virus type 1-infected cells.

HEp-2 cells underwent apoptosis when the cells were incubated in medium containing sorbitol. Infection with herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) prior to the sorbitol treatment suppressed this apoptosis completely, indicating that HSV-1 carries an antiapoptosis gene. In addition, HSV-1 multiplication was restricted in these apoptotic HEp-2 cells.     

Induction and prevention of apoptosis in human HEp-2 cells by herpes simplex virus type 1

Cultured human epithelial cells infected with an ICP27 deletion strain of herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) show characteristic features of apoptotic cells including cell shrinkage, nuclear condensation, and DNA fragmentation. These cells do not show such apoptotic features when infected with a wild-type virus unless the infections are performed in the presence of a protein synthesis inhibitor. Thus, both types of virus induce apoptosis, but the ICP27-null virus is unable to prevent this process from killing the cells. In this report, we show that this ICP27-deficient virus induced apoptosis in human HEp-2 cells through a pathway which involved the activation of caspase-3 and the processing of the death substrates DNA fragmentation factor and poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase. The induction of apoptosis by wild-type HSV-1 occurred prior to 6 h postinfection (hpi), and de novo viral protein synthesis was not required to induce the process. The ability of the virus to inhibit apoptosis was shown to be effective between 3 to 6 hpi. Wild-type HSV-1 infection was also able to block the apoptosis induced in cells by the addition of cycloheximide, staurosporine, and sorbitol. While U(S)3- and ICP22-deficient viruses showed a partial prevention of apoptosis, deletion of either the U(L)13 or vhs gene products did not affect the ability of HSV-1 to prevent apoptosis in infected cells. Finally, we demonstrate that in UV-inactivated viruses, viral binding and entry were not sufficient to induce apoptosis. Taken together, these results suggest that either gene expression or another RNA metabolic event likely plays a role in the induction of apoptosis in HSV-1-infected human cells.     

HSV—2阴道感染并诱导小鼠阴道粘膜上皮细胞凋亡

最近的报道指出,某些病毒有诱导体外细胞凋亡的作用,借以限制病毒的扩散。为探讨ＨＳＶ－２在体内诱导细胞凋亡的效果及其形态学特点,用 ＨＳＶ－２ ３３３株感染小鼠阴道,于感染后不同天数处死动物,取其阴道,固定于１０％中性福尔马林,ＴＵＮＥＬ末端标记染色显示凋亡的细胞,光镜下进行原位观察。结果显示：感染后的第１天粘膜上皮内即出现大量的凋亡细胞,第２天至１１天凋亡细胞的数量及在上皮内的分布范围达最高水平。早期的凋亡细胞见于感染后所有标本,其核染色质形态及分布似正常细胞,但它被ＴＵＮＥＬ标记染成棕黄色;晚期的凋亡细胞亦见于所有标本,其胞核缩小,染色质浓缩并在核周边集聚,核中心空化。载有凋亡细胞的上皮在阴道粘膜上分布很广,最广的可占全阴道上皮的２／３。同时可见ＨＳＶ．２引起的上皮细胞坏死及疱疹形成,二者均由凋亡细胞包围。凋亡细胞不断地由上皮表面脱落至阴道,未见凋亡小体及吞噬现象。结果提示,ＨＳＶ－２ ３３３株阴道感染可同时诱导细胞坏死及凋亡,细胞凋亡可能在限制病毒产生子代及限制感染区域扩展起重要作用。     

A replication-competent, neuronal spread-defective, live attenuated herpes simplex virus type 1 vaccine

Herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) produces oral lesions, encephalitis, keratitis, and severe infections in the immunocompromised host. HSV-1 is almost as common as HSV-2 in causing first episodes of genital herpes, a disease that is associated with an increased risk of human immunodeficiency virus acquisition and transmission. No approved vaccines are currently available to protect against HSV-1 or HSV-2 infection. We developed a novel HSV vaccine strategy that uses a replication-competent strain of HSV-1, NS-gEnull, which has a defect in anterograde and retrograde directional spread and cell-to-cell spread. Following scratch inoculation on the mouse flank, NS-gEnull replicated at the site of inoculation without causing disease. Importantly, the vaccine strain was not isolated from dorsal root ganglia (DRG). We used the flank model to challenge vaccinated mice and demonstrated that NS-gEnull was highly protective against wild-type HSV-1. The challenge virus replicated to low titers at the site of inoculation; therefore, the vaccine strain did not provide sterilizing immunity. Nevertheless, challenge by HSV-1 or HSV-2 resulted in less-severe disease at the inoculation site, and vaccinated mice were totally protected against zosteriform disease and death. After HSV-1 challenge, latent virus was recovered by DRG explant cocultures from <10% of vaccinated mice compared with 100% of mock-vaccinated mice. The vaccine provided protection against disease and death after intravaginal challenge and markedly lowered the titers of the challenge virus in the vagina. Therefore, the HSV-1 gEnull strain is an excellent candidate for further vaccine development.     

Herpes simplex virus blocks apoptosis by precluding mitochondrial cytochrome c release independent of caspase activation in infected human epithelial cells

Expression of HSV-1 genes leads to the induction of apoptosis in human epithelial HEp-2 cells but the subsequent synthesis of infected cell protein prevents the process from killing the cells. Thus, viruses unable to produce appropriate prevention factors are apoptotic. We now report that the addition of either a pancaspase inhibitor or caspase-9-specific inhibitor prevented cells infected with an apoptotic HSV-1 virus from undergoing cell death. This result indicated that HSV-1-dependent apoptosis proceeds through the mitochondrial apoptotic pathway. However, the pancaspase inhibitor did not prevent the release of cytochrome c from mitochondria, implying that caspase activation is not required for this induction of cytochrome c release by HSV-1. The release of cytochrome c was first detected at 9 hpi while caspase-9, caspase-3 and PARP processing were detected at 12 hpi. Finally, Bax accumulated at mitochondria during apoptotic, but not wild type HSV-1 infection. Together, these findings indicate that HSV-1 blocks apoptosis by precluding mitochondrial cytochrome c release in a caspase-independent manner and suggest Bax as a target in infected human epithelial cells.     

中华鳖病毒感染宿主的细胞病理学研究

中华鳖病毒经人工感染可引起健康中华鳖发病和死亡。对病鳖组织细胞瓣超微结构观察,同时见有以染色质高度凝集和边缘化,核裂并形成“凋亡小体”等表现有典型的类似于细胞凋记形态变化的细胞,和以核膜崩解、线粒体膜膨大、细胞膜破裂、细胞质严重液泡化等表现为坏死性变化的细胞。ＤＮＡ片段化分析表明,感病鳖组织细胞的ＤＮＡ发生了严重的片段化,且以肝组织细胞的ＤＮＡ片段化最为严重。研究提示,中华鳖病毒导致宿主死亡同时存     

Targeting apoptosis in neurological disease using the herpes simplex virus

Herpes Simplex Viruses type 1 (HSV-1) and 2 (HSV-2) cause central nervous system (CNS) disease ranging from benign aseptic meningitis to fatal encephalitis. In adults, CNS infection with HSV-2 is most often associated with aseptic meningitis while HSV-1 frequently produces severe, focal encephalitis associated with high mortality and morbidity. Recent studies suggested that the distinct neurological outcome of CNS infection with the two viruses may be due to their distinct modulation of apoptotic cell death: HSV-1 triggers neuronal apoptosis, while HSV-2 is neuroprotective. Apoptosis also occurs in the etiology of neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease and Down's syndrome, and determines the loss of specific neuronal populations and the decline in cognitive functions. Notwithstanding, the therapy of these disorders may rely on the use of replication-defective HSV-1 vectors to deliver anti-apoptotic transgenes to the CNS. However, the recent discovery of a neuroprotective activity innate to the HSV-2 genome (the ICP10 PK gene) suggests that: i) ICP10 PK may constitute a novel therapeutic approach by targeting both the apoptotic cell death and the cognitive decline, and ii) HSV-2 may be more suitable than HSV-1 as a vector for targeting neuronal disease.