Assessing the biodiversity benefits of plantations: The Plantation Biodiversity Benefits Score

Summary   All forests, including commercial plantations, provide a range of habitats for conserving and enhancing elements of native biodiversity. However, the biodiversity values of commercial plantations will depend on the management practices adopted on site, as well as the landscape context of the plantation. The present study describes a generic, quantitative method for assessing the potential biodiversity benefits that might be derived from a plantation, depending on the management practices adopted. This method is based on existing ecological design and management principles. The Plantation Biodiversity Benefits Score (PBBS) was designed to be repeatable and practical to apply. The method can be used either as a stand-alone tool or as part of an integrated framework to assess and compare the commercial and environmental benefits that can be derived from different layouts, management practices and locations of plantations anywhere in Australia.     

广西国有林场森林生物多样性变化评价

采用压力—状态—响应评价法对 1 990～ 2 0 0 1年广西国有林场森林生物多样性进行了研究 ,发现林场森林生物多样性十多年来呈下降趋势。导致森林生物多样性减少的主要根源是林场人口急剧增长和不当的森林经营方式。提出了控制人口增长、转变森林经营方式以遏制林场森林生物多样性减少、保护森林生物多样性的对策     

A landscape‐based approach for assessing spatiotemporal impacts of forest biomass‐based electricity generation on the age structure of surrounding forest plantations in the Southern United States

Forest plantations support several ecosystem services including biodiversity conservation. Establishment of a forest biomass‐based industry could significantly change the age structure of forest plantations located in its vicinity and thus, could lead to a possible loss of biodiversity. Therefore, this study assesses spatiotemporal impacts of a forest biomass‐based power plant on the age structure of surrounding forest plantations at landscape level. A cellular automata approach was adopted and interactions between economic objectives of forest landowners and a power plant owner punctuated by forest growth and management characteristics were considered. These spatiotemporal impacts were jointly assessed for four separate scenarios and four different power plant capacities using appropriate landscape‐level indices. Slash pine (Pinus elliotti L.) was selected as a representative species. Results indicate that the age structure of surrounding forest plantations continuously fluctuates with respect to each year of power plant operation. However, the age structure, once disturbed, never becomes comparable to the original age structure. We also found that the mature plantations were harvested during early years of power plant operation and were never observed again for the remaining years of power plant operation. This was particularly true for high capacity power plants. Similarly, high value of selected spatial index at the end of power plant life for a high capacity power plant relative to the original low value of the same index indicates aggregation of remaining plantation ages at landscape level. Establishment of low capacity forest biomass‐based power plants and adoption of an integrated regional level planning approach could help in maintaining original age structure characteristics of surrounding forest plantations to a large extent. This might help in sustaining various ecosystem services including biodiversity conservation obtained from forest plantations in a long run.     

可持续经营框架下阔叶红松林区生物多样性间接评价体系的研究

森林生物多样性的保护和持续利用是森林可持续经营的重要内容,如何快速有效地评价生物多样性是当前森林经营实践中面临的重要问题。本文以可持续发展为指导思想,针对阔叶红松林区森林可持续经营中的生物多样性保护问题,提出了一套生物多样性间接评价的体系和评价方法。生物多样性间接评价的基本原理是以物种与生境的关系、森林自然干扰状况、物种间的相互关系和对特殊生境及敏感物种的考虑等为基础的。依据阔叶红松林区的干扰状况、林分一般状况、立木层、灌木层、草本层、附生植物和藤本植物等的特点,采用重复累加的方法,制定了阔叶红松林区林分生物多样性间接评价的打分表。在一个森林经营单位(林业局或林场)进行生物多样性的保护时,首先应根据不同森林类型对干扰的适应和抵抗力大小确定对各类森林优先保护的次序,然后再在各类森林的不同小班中进行生物多样性间接评价打分表的填写,最后根据不同小班生物多样性得分的多少确定其保护的等级或先后次序。生物多样性间接评价调查可以结合森林经理调查来进行。     

氮沉降对森林生物多样性的影响

从3个方面论述了氮沉降对森林生物多样性影响：（1）森林植物多样性,包括乔木层植物、林下层植物和隐花植物;（2）土壤微生物多样性,主要是细菌和真菌;（3）森林动物多样性：主要包括地下土壤动物和地上草食动物。综合来看,氮沉降改变了物种组成,过量氮沉降降低了生物多样性。同时,也对氮沉降影响生物多样性的机理进行了分析。最后,还探讨了当前在氮沉降对森林生物多样性影响的研究方面存在的问题以及今后研究的方向。     

Enhancing the biodiversity of Scotland's forest resource through the development of a network of forest habitats

Scottish Natural Heritage, the statutory conservation agency, is considering the desirability and feasibility of developing a network of woodland habitats to redress the long term trend of fragmentation and isolation. Woodland conservation has long been based on site protection, but recent changes in policy, attitude and practice have opened up the possibility of recreating native forest cover on a much larger scale. The ECONET approach appears to have much to offer as the basis for enhancing the biodiversity of Scotland's forest resource. A network could be developed from existing woods to form a Scotland-wide network of Core Forest Areas and major landscape links, largely associated with major valleys. To achieve this, existing concentrations of woodland would be extended into poorly wooded districts. Many vulnerable wildlife species are likely to benefit, and there would be other benefits for recreation, landscape and timber production.     

Effects of alien pine plantations on small mammal community structure in a southern African biodiversity hotspot

Commercial plantations and alien tree invasions often have substantial negative impacts on local biodiversity. The effect of plantations on faunal communities in the fire‐adapted fynbos vegetation of the Cape Floristic Region biodiversity hotspot is not yet well quantified. We studied small mammal community structure in alien Pinus radiata plantations and adjacent fynbos regenerating after clear‐felling of plantations on the Cape Peninsula, South Africa. Small mammal sampling over 1,800 trap‐nights resulted in 480 captures of 345 individuals (excluding recaptures) representing six species. Significantly more species, individuals (12 X) and biomasses (29 X) of small mammals occurred on recovering fynbos sites compared to plantations. This was commensurate with a higher diversity of plant growth forms, vegetation densities and live vegetation biomass. Only one small mammal species, the pygmy mouse (Mus minutoides), was consistently trapped within plantations. Fynbos sites were dominated by three small mammal species that are ecological generalists and early successional pioneer species, rendering the recovering fynbos slightly depauperate in terms of species richness and evenness relative to other studies done in pristine fynbos. We make three recommendations for forestry that would facilitate the restoration of more diverse natural plant communities and progressively more diverse and dynamic small mammal assemblages in a key biodiversity hotspot.     

Logged peat swamp forest supports greater macrofungal biodiversity than large‐scale oil palm plantations and smallholdings

Intensive land expansion of commercial oil palm agricultural lands results in reducing the size of peat swamp forests, particularly in Southeast Asia. The effect of this land conversion on macrofungal biodiversity is, however, understudied. We quantified macrofungal biodiversity by identifying mushroom sporocarps throughout four different habitats; logged peat swamp forest, large‐scale oil palm plantation, monoculture, and polyculture smallholdings. We recorded a total of 757 clusters of macrofungi belonging to 127 morphospecies and found that substrates for growing macrofungi were abundant in peat swamp forest; hence, morphospecies richness and macrofungal clusters were significantly greater in logged peat swamp forest than converted oil palm agriculture lands. Environmental factors that influence macrofungi in logged peat swamp forests such as air temperature, humidity, wind speed, soil pH, and soil moisture were different from those in oil palm plantations and smallholdings. We conclude that peat swamp forests are irreplaceable with respect to macrofungal biodiversity. They host much greater macrofungal biodiversity than any of the oil palm agricultural lands. It is imperative that further expansion of oil palm plantation into remaining peat swamp forests should be prohibited in palm oil producing countries. These results imply that macrofungal distribution reflects changes in microclimate between habitats and reduced macrofungal biodiversity may adversely affect decomposition in human‐modified landscapes.     

Effects of nitrogen deposition on forest biodiversity

Humans have altered global and regional cycles of nitrogen (N) more than any other elements. Increasing N emissions to the atmosphere from accelerating industrialization and production and use of fertilizer N now make N deposition significant not only in densely populated regions of Europe and North America, but also in other parts of the world (e.g., Asia and Latin America). Increased atmospheric N deposition is known to be able to reduce biodiversity in natural and semi-natural ecosystems. It is suggested that N deposition will be the third greatest driver of biodiversity loss on the global scale in this century, after land use and climate change. Based on published study results, we reviewed the impacts of N deposition on forest biodiversity by emphasizing 3 aspects: (1) plant diversity, including arborous plants, understory plants and cryptogam plants; (2) soil microorganism diversity; (3) animal diversity, including underground soil fauna and aboveground herbivores. In general, it was found that N deposition could alter species diversity, and excessive N could reduce species diversity, such as richness and abundance, and even lose special species. We also identified specific mechanisms on how excessive N deposition affected forest biodiversity. Finally, we summarized the current status of research on N deposition in China and in other countries, and proposed potential research activities and recommendations.     

白蚁活动对中亚热带次生林和人工林的危害差异

中亚热带地区是中国南方重要的木材生产基地, 大量的地带性常绿阔叶林被转换成以杉木(Cunninghamia lanceolata)为代表的人工林。白蚁是森林中最主要的社会性昆虫之一, 其取食行为既对森林类型转换后林中的树木产生危害, 也对林间枯枝落叶的分解具有十分重要的意义, 但对二者缺乏统一的认识。本文以中亚热带典型的米槠(Castanopsis carlesii)次生林、米槠人工林和杉木人工林为研究对象, 调查了不同林分白蚁的活动特点及其范围。结果表明, 米槠次生林与杉木、米槠人工林中均普遍存在白蚁取食现象, 但白蚁对次生林的取食高度和面积均远低于人工林。白蚁对生物多样性较高的米槠次生林树干韧皮部的取食面积仅分别为米槠人工林的1.65%和杉木人工林的0.59‰, 取食高度的11.1%和1.2%。同时, 白蚁对杉木韧皮部的取食显著大于米槠, 对杉木的取食面积和高度分别是米槠的27.7倍和9.2倍。每隔0.5 m为一个统计区间, 白蚁对杉木树干2 m以下韧皮部取食面积比例由低往高为4 : 3 : 2 : 1, 对米槠1 m以下高度部位的取食面积比为99 : 1。此外, 白蚁对次生林地表覆盖的凋落枝和凋落叶的平均取食面积分别为51.7%和46.1%, 而人工林对应均值分别为17.5%和29.4%, 均表现为次生林高于人工林。这些结果表明白蚁对生物多样性较高的次生林危害小于杉木人工林, 且在人工林中可见危害主要体现在白蚁对韧皮部的取食, 在次生林主要体现在白蚁对凋落物残体的分解作用, 这为区域森林经营管理提供理论支撑。     

马尾松人工林林窗大小对两种凋落叶难降解物质含量的影响

林窗通过改变森林微环境及土壤环境而影响凋落物难降解物质的降解, 目前关于人工林林窗对凋落物分解过程中难降解物质影响的研究较少。该文采用凋落物分解袋法, 以马尾松(Pinus massoniana)人工林人工砍伐形成的7个不同面积的林窗(G1: 100 m²、G2: 225 m²、G3: 400 m²、G4: 625 m²、G5: 900 m²、G6: 1225 m²、G7: 1600 m²)为研究对象, 以林下为对照, 研究了林窗大小对两种乡土树种——樟(Cinnamomum camphora)和红椿(Toona ciliata)凋落叶分解过程中难降解物质(木质素、纤维素、总酚、缩合单宁)含量的影响。结果表明: 1)林窗大小对林窗中心红椿凋落叶缩合单宁、总酚、木质素的含量有显著影响, 对其纤维素含量和樟凋落叶中4种难降解物质含量均无显著影响。随着林窗面积的增大, 红椿凋落叶中除纤维素含量外的其余3种难降解物质含量, 中小型林窗(G1-G5, G1: 100 m², G2: 225 m², G3:400 m², G4: 625 m², G5: 900 m²)低于大型林窗(G6、G7, G6: 1225 m², G7: 1600 m²)。2)林窗不同位置, 只有红椿凋落叶中缩合单宁含量林窗中心显著低于边缘, 其余难降解物质含量和樟凋落叶中4种难降解物质含量均无显著差异。樟凋落叶的木质素含量在G3林窗显著低于林下; 红椿凋落叶除纤维素含量外的其余难降解物质含量, 中小型林窗从林窗中心到边缘均显著低于林下。3)随着分解时间的延长, 两种凋落叶都表现出缩合单宁、纤维素含量降低, 木质素含量升高, 总酚含量先升高后降低的变化趋势。研究结果表明: 中小型林窗(100-900 m²)较大面积林窗干扰更有利于凋落叶中难降解物质的降解, 而林窗内的环境异质性应该是凋落物中难分解物质分解动态的主要调控因子, 并且这种效应依赖于初始凋落物质量。     

The impact of global climate change on tropical forest biodiversity in Amazonia

Aim To model long‐term trends in plant species distributions in response to predicted changes in global climate. Location Amazonia. Methods The impacts of expected global climate change on the potential and realized distributions of a representative sample of 69 individual Angiosperm species in Amazonia were simulated from 1990 to 2095. The climate trend followed the HADCM2GSa1 scenario, which assumes an annual 1% increase of atmospheric CO₂ content with effects mitigated by sulphate forcing. Potential distributions of species in one‐degree grid cells were modelled using a suitability index and rectilinear envelope based on bioclimate variables. Realized distributions were additionally limited by spatial contiguity with, and proximity to, known record sites. A size‐structured population model was simulated for each cell in the realized distributions to allow for lags in response to climate change, but dispersal was not included. Results In the resulting simulations, 43% of all species became non‐viable by 2095 because their potential distributions had changed drastically, but there was little change in the realized distributions of most species, owing to delays in population responses. Widely distributed species with high tolerance to environmental variation exhibited the least response to climate change, and species with narrow ranges and short generation times the greatest. Climate changed most in north‐east Amazonia while the best remaining conditions for lowland moist forest species were in western Amazonia. Main conclusions To maintain the greatest resilience of Amazonian biodiversity to climate change as modelled by HADCM2GSa1, highest priority should be given to strengthening and extending protected areas in western Amazonia that encompass lowland and montane forests.     

元谋干热河谷不同人工林中鞘翅目甲虫多样性比较

在元谋干热河谷采用网扫法调查了云南松林、桉树林、新银合欢林、桉树＋新银合欢林、印楝林及多树种混交的人工林鞘翅目昆虫多样性。结果表明,鞘翅目甲虫标本925号,计71种,分属18个科,其中叶甲科种类最丰富,象甲科数量最丰富。人工林鞘翅目昆虫群落物种丰富度在7～23,Shannon—Wiener多样性指数在1．249～2．562,昆虫多样性总体较低。各样地鞘翅目群落之间为不相似水平。云南松林鞘翅目昆虫群落物种丰富度、Shannon—Wiener指数、Simpson指数及Pielou指数分别为20、2．562、0．104和0．855,其多样性最高,多树种混交林较高,印楝林较低,而桉树林、新银合欢林、桉树＋新银合欢林多样性极低。多树种混交的恢复对昆虫多样性提高有显著促进作用。     

森林生态系统生物多样性的遥感评估

目前的评估由于方法的原因,常常会遗留下一些含糊不清的地方。遥感则可以作一种观察生态系统多样性和单个生态系统中各种结构侧面的重要工具。它提供了一种能够跨越几个不同空间尺度实施评估的手段,并且对于评估生态系统格局随时间的变化也是必不可少。现在许多不同的遥感技术已经被应用在生态学研究中。大多数工作所用的数据主要是来自机载和星载平台提供的摄影和数字光学图像,目前则越来越强调激光扫描和合成孔径雷达数据的应用。这些技术手段为从景观到林分规模的不同现象的评估提供了机会。遥感提供了可用于确定森林生态系统中生物多样性景观尺度的元素最有效的工具。例如基质和斑块的相对百分比以及它们的配置。在中间尺度,遥感为评价廊道的存在和边界的特性提供了理想的工具。在林分尺度,遥感技术可用来获取关于森林分结构属性的信息,例如冠层表面的特性,是否存在冠内分层等等。随着的发展,遥感将更广泛地应用于生态学研究。     

格氏栲天然林和人工林土壤呼吸对干湿交替的响应

通过室外定位观测前期连续干旱情况下天然降雨及室内模拟不同温度 (10℃、19℃和 2 8℃ )下测定格氏栲天然林、格氏栲人工林和杉木人工林土壤增湿后呼吸动态 ,探讨不同林型土壤呼吸对土壤干湿交替的响应。结果发现室外定位观测和室内模拟试验均出现了增湿后土壤呼吸骤升至最大值及随后逐渐衰减的现象 ,且这种变化可由时间过程模型 (R=ate- bt c)较好地进行拟合。温度升高提升了土壤呼吸对干湿交替的响应值 RV。格氏栲天然林土壤呼吸对干湿交替的响应对温度最为敏感 ,随温度升高其响应指数 RE增加 ;杉木林土壤呼吸对干湿交替的响应指数 RE最高 ,且对土壤水分变化最敏感 ,但随温度升高超过一定限度后其响应指数 RE反而降低     

Effects of forest gap size on litter recalcitrant components of two tree species in Pinus massoniana plantations

Aims The objective of the study was to evaluate the dynamics of recalcitrant components during foliar litter decomposition at different forest gap size in Pinus massoniana plantation in the low hilly land, Sichuan basin. Methods The experiment was set up by thinning P. massoniana plantation to establish seven different gap sizes (G1: 100 m², G2: 225 m², G3: 400 m², G4: 625 m², G5: 900 m², G6: 1225 m², G7: 1600 m²). The contents of four recalcitrant components (condensed tannins, total phenol, lignin, cellulose) in foliar litter of two native species (Cinnamomum camphora and Toona ciliata) placed in litterbags at different locations in the forest gaps were evaluated. The litterbags placed under closed canopy were used as the control. Litterbags with air-dried leaves of C. camphora and T. ciliata were placed at center, edge of the gap and under the closed canopy in November 2013, and collected in December 2013, February 2014, May 2014 and August of 2014 for lab analysis. Important findings The results showed that: 1) Forest gap size had significant effect on the content of condensed tannins, total phenol and lignin for T. ciliata in gap center. However, the forest gap size had no significant effect on the content of recalcitrant components in the litters of C. camphora and cellulose content of T. ciliata. With the increase of gap size, except for cellulose content, the other three recalcitrant components content in small and medium sized gaps (G1-G5) were significant lower than in large gaps (G6, G7). 2) The condensed tannis content of T. ciliata at the gap center were significant lower than at the gap edge. The lignin contents at gap center of G3 was significant reduced in the C. camphora litter. The condensed tannins, total phenol, and lignin contents of T. ciliata litter in small and medium gaps significantly decreased. 3) The contents of the four recalcitrant components in both species’ foliar litter changed with time. The contents of condensed tannins and cellulose decreased and the content of lignin increased significantly with time, however, the total phenol content increased initially, and then decreased. Therefore, small and medium sized gaps (100-900 m²) could be the optimal gap sizes to promote the degradation of litter recalcitrant components for two native species in P. massoniana plantations.     

基于分层的典型中亚热带天然阔叶林分局部生物多样性

选择福建万木林保护区内两块典型中亚热带天然阔叶林样地为对象,按分层和不分层两种情形,研究了小尺度(20m)范围内各组成树种的单物种-面积关系(individual species-area relationship,ISAR),以探讨局部生物多样性格局及其维持机制。结果表明,两个群落的乔木层都可以划分出受光层和非受光层两个亚层。以受光层林木为圆心进行ISAR分析,发现在小尺度范围大多数受光层林木为局部生物多样性的中性种,只有个别树种在个别尺度上有显著的促进或排斥作用。研究途径避免了对非随机作用在维持局部生物多样性中的相对重要性的高估。不分层时,乔木层内同样以中性树种为主。研究结果支持小尺度范围内调查的典型中亚热带天然阔叶林的物种多样性由中性作用主导的结论。     

缙云山生境片断化对常绿阔叶林生物多样性的影响

采用Simpson、Shannon-Wiener和Hill多样性指数以及逐步多元回归分析方法,在缙云山进行了植物群落调查、小气候观测和土壤肥力的测定以及各变量之间关系的分析。结果表明:片断常绿阔叶林物种多样性指数比连续常绿阔叶林低,不同生活型的表现不同;各片断阔叶林斑块边缘均存在明显的小气候边缘效应。随着斑块面积的减小,各斑块的ΔTa、林缘及林内ΔTs、林缘和林内ΔRH、林缘和林内Vmax、林缘和林内ΔPAR(正午)均呈增大的趋势。各斑块的小气候边缘效应,以最大斑块波及林内的深度最浅(约至林内15m)、最小斑块波及林内的深度最深(约至林内25m);常绿阔叶林物种多样性受林内外有效光合辐射(正午)差、气温日较差、土壤含水量、土壤有机质含量和土壤有效钾等因素的影响。