星形胶质细胞调控的谷氨酸代谢与癫痫的关系探讨

癫痫(Epilepsy)是一种常见的慢性神经系统疾病,长期反复发作会逐渐损害患者的认知功能并且导致多种共患疾病.癫痫发病机制复杂,其中谷氨酸代谢异常与癫痫发病关系密切.谷氨酸-谷氨酰胺循环是调节谷氨酸代谢的主要途径,谷氨酸转运体和星形胶质细胞在其中发挥重要作用.因此,本文主要探讨星形胶质细胞及谷氨酸转运体对癫痫的影响.     

星形胶质细胞释放谷氨酸的机制

谷氨酸是介导中枢神经系统快速兴奋性传导的一种重要递质.以往人们仅注意到神经元通过释放谷氨酸来调节其可塑性,而近年来发现脑中远超出神经元10倍的星形胶质细胞同样能释放谷氨酸并参与神经系统的调节及多种脑损伤性疾病的发生发展过程.目前主要包括Ca2 依赖性释放及非Ca2 依赖性释放两大方面,涉及5种机制:(1)Ca2 依赖性胞吐释放;(2)谷氨酸转运体逆向转运假说;(3)膨胀诱导的阴离子通道假说;(4)连接蛋白半通道假说;(5)嘌呤受体假说.     

星形胶质细胞糖代谢对神经元的支持及保护作用

脑组织有着极其复杂的功能,这些功能的完成有赖于神经元细胞与胶质细胞之间的广泛合作。星形胶质细胞作为人脑内数量最多的细胞,其与神经元细胞之间的相互作用就显得十分重要。葡萄糖代谢途径包括糖酵解,有氧氧化及磷酸戊糖三条途径。其为脑组织维持其正常功能的前提。研究表明星形胶质细胞和神经元在糖代谢方面有着各自的特点,神经元在能量底物及抗氧化应激中对星形胶质细胞糖代谢途径存在一定的依赖性,干扰星形胶质细胞与神经元之间的代谢过程会导致疾病的发生。本综述主要从糖酵解及磷酸戊糖两条糖代谢途径阐述了星形胶质细胞与神经元的关系。这或许会对研究脑的代谢,脑疾病中神经元的损伤机制及如何保护神经元提供全新的视角,并可能为一些疾病的治疗开辟了新的途径。     

LPS诱导海马星形胶质细胞活化与活化的星形胶质细胞对海马神经元的影响

探讨脂多糖(Lipopolysaccharide,LPS)对长时间存活大鼠海马内星形胶质细胞的反应以及对神经元的影响。方法:本实验用10只健康成年雄性SD大鼠,海马CA3区注射LPS 10μ1．7和14d后,尼氏染色观察神经元的变化,免疫组织化学染色结合图像分析方法观察海马CA3区注射部位胶质纤维酸性蛋白(glial fibrillary acidic protein GFAP)、的表达变化。结果:脂多糖可促进海马星形胶质细胞的活化,但并不能引起海马区神经元的损伤。结论:星形胶质细胞在脑损伤后的脑内炎症反应起了一定的作用,但并不能引起神经元的损伤。     

星形胶质细胞

目录一、星形胶质细胞的生物学特性(一 )星形胶质细胞的异质性(二 )胶质网络二、星形胶质细胞的功能(一 )分泌功能(二 )星形胶质细胞与神经的发育及再生(三 )星形胶质细胞具有对神经元微环境调控的能力(四 )免疫功能与血脑屏障调控三、星形胶质细胞功能的新近进展(一 )星形胶质细胞也具有可兴奋性(二 )星形胶质细胞与神经元的通讯或对话(三 )在突触形成和突触可塑性中的作用(四 )星形胶质细胞与神经发生胶质细胞是神经系统内数量众多的一大类细胞群体 ,约占中枢神经系统 (CNS)细胞总数的 90 % ,星形胶质细胞 (astrocyte)是其中主要的组成…     

星形神经胶质细胞摄取谷氨酸与环境因子和离子运输的关系

本文以星形神经胶质细胞为对象,用同位素示踪技术较详细地研究了介质中Na、、K~+和CL~-、不同浓度的卡因酸以及几种抑制剂对L-谷氨酸摄取的影响;并观察了L-谷氨酸对星形神经胶质细胞膜运输Na~+、K~+、Cl~-和Ca~(2+)等的作用.结果表明:L-谷氨酸的摄取依赖于介质中是否存在Na~+ ,在缺Na~+介质中对Cl~-的依赖性也较明显,但在正常Na~+浓度下,含Cl~_和缺Cl~_没有明显差别.当增加介质中K~+浓度引起膜的去极化时,则能降低L~_谷氨酸的摄取.反过来,L-谷氨酸的摄取也对Na~+、K~+、Cl~-等的运输起刺激作用.此外,卡因酸及所用的几种抑制剂对谷氨酸的摄取办有明显抑制作用.     

马桑内酯激活的星形胶质细胞条件培养液对正常大鼠脑内谷氨酸和GABA的影响

目的探讨星形胶质细胞对大鼠脑内谷氨酸(Glu)和γ-氨基丁酸(GABA)的影响及其在癫痫发病中的作用。方法将马桑内酯激活的星形胶质细胞条件培养液(astrocyte-conditioned medium,ACM)注射入正常SD大鼠侧脑室,观察大鼠的行为变化,运用免疫组织化学及HPLC的方法,观察大鼠大脑皮质、海马内Glu和GABA免疫反应的变化及脑组织匀浆、脑脊液内Glu和GABA含量的变化。结果ACM组大鼠在注射ACM后30min出现癫痫行为,2h恢复正常。免疫组织化学显示:ACM作用后2h,大鼠大脑皮质及海马内Glu免疫反应阳性神经元数和平均光密度值明显增高,4h达高峰(P<0.05),12h恢复正常水平;ACM作用后2h,大鼠大脑皮质及海马GABA免疫反应阳性神经元数和平均光密度值明显减弱(P<0.05),12h恢复正常水平。HPLC方法显示:ACM作用后2h大鼠大脑皮质、海马及脑脊液中Glu含量均开始增加,4h达高峰(P<0.05);ACM作用后2h大脑皮质、海马及脑脊液中GABA含量均开始降低,4h达最低(P<0.05)。结论马桑内酯激活的星形胶质细胞条件培养液可影响大鼠脑内Glu和GABA的表达,并导致动物痫性发作。     

激活的星形胶质细胞条件培养基对大鼠杏仁核谷氨酸的影响

为探讨星形胶质细胞在癫痫发作中的作用,用肿瘤坏死因子-α（tumor necrosis factor-α,TNF-α）刺激纯化培养的海马星形胶持细胞,将此条件培养基（astrocytic conditioned medium,ACM)10μl注入大鼠侧脑室,观察动物的行为,脑电图及杏仁核内谷氨酸（glutamic acid,Glu)免疫组织化学反应。结果表明,侧脑室注射ACM可引起大鼠癫痫样发作,脑电图出现阵发性痫样放电;杏仁核内Glu免疫阳性反应增强,经多媒体彩色病理图分析系统（MPIAS）检测。阳性细胞面密度和平均光密度高于对照组,本实验为星形胶质细胞在癫痫复发中的作用机理提供了直接的依据。     

原代培养星形胶质细胞和小胶质细胞的特性与鉴定

本研究旨在明确原代培养的星形胶质细胞和小胶质细胞不同代次的生长特性,优化高效获取状态一致细胞的技术方法。将新生乳鼠的脑组织进行原代分离培养胶质细胞,通过细胞增殖检测试剂盒（cell counting kit-8,CCK-8）测定混合胶质细胞增殖曲线,使用流式细胞术检测两类细胞比例,并通过免疫荧光染色鉴定两类胶质细胞分型情况。生长曲线显示P0和P1代混合胶质细胞增殖活力最好;通过170 r/min机械振摇30 min可获得97.3%的高纯度小胶质细胞,该纯化方法得到的P0、P1、P2代离子钙接头蛋白-1（ionized calcium-binding adapter molecule 1,Iba-1）阳性小胶质细胞的形态及其M1、M2表型比例无代次差别;通过星形胶质细胞表面抗原-2（astrocyte cell surface antigen-2,ACSA-2）磁珠抗体分选的方法可获得纯度达到95.7%的星形胶质细胞,该纯化方法得到的P0、P1、P2代胶质纤维酸性蛋白（glial fibrillary acidic protein,GFAP）阳性星形胶质细胞的形态及其A1、A2表型比例无代次差别。本研究详述了原代分离培养的小胶质细胞和星形胶质细胞的生长特点,证明了获取两类胶质细胞的最佳代次,优化了获取两类胶质细胞的技术方法,验证了连续培养两代不会影响其功能表型。本结果为研究神经系统炎症相关疾病的分子机制提供了技术支撑。     

疼痛研究的新亮点:星形胶质细胞

一直以来疼痛被认为仅仅是由神经元调节的。目前的研究表明,星形胶质细胞与疼痛有密切的关系。星形胶质细胞通过许多重要功能如参与信号转导、被激活而表现出激活的特性,如释放促炎性因子、神经营养因子等,在疼痛调节过程中发挥重要作用。对星形胶质细胞与疼痛关系的研究,必将为疼痛机制的阐明及疼痛治疗提供新的思路。     

Transfer of glutamine between astrocytes and neurons

The export of glutamine from astrocytes, and the uptake of glutamine by neurons, are integral steps in the glutamate-glutamine cycle, a major pathway for the replenishment of neuronal glutamate. We review here the functional and molecular identification of the transporters that mediate this transfer. The emerging picture of glutamine transfer in adult brain is of a dominant pathway mediated by system N transport (SN1) in astrocytes and system A transport (SAT/ATA) in neurons. The participating glutamine transporters are functionally and structurally related, sharing the following properties: (a) unlike many neutral amino acid transporters which have proven to be obligate exchangers, these glutamine transporters mediate net substrate transfer energized by coupling to ionic gradients; (b) they are sensitive to small pH changes in the physiological range; (c) they are susceptible to adaptive and humoral regulation; (d) they are related structurally to the AAAP (amino acid and auxin permeases) family of transporters. A key difference between SN1 and the SAT/ATA transporters is the ready reversibility of glutamine fluxes via SN1 under physiological conditions, which allows SN1 both to sustain a glutamine concentration gradient in astrocytes and to mediate the net outward flux of glutamine. It is likely that the ASCT2 transporter, an obligate exchanger of neutral amino acids, displaces the SN1 transporter as the main carrier of glutamine export in proliferating astrocytes.     

Antioxidant and bioenergetic coupling between neurons and astrocytes

Oxidative and nitrosative stress underlie the pathogenesis of a broad range of human diseases, in particular neurodegenerative disorders. Within the brain, neurons are the cells most vulnerable to excess reactive oxygen and nitrogen species; their survival relies on the antioxidant protection promoted by neighbouring astrocytes. However, neurons are also intrinsically equipped with a biochemical mechanism that links glucose metabolism to antioxidant defence. Neurons actively metabolize glucose through the pentose phosphate pathway, which maintains the antioxidant glutathione in its reduced state, hence exerting neuroprotection. This process is tightly controlled by a key glycolysis-promoting enzyme and is dependent on an appropriate supply of energy substrates from astrocytes. Thus brain bioenergetic and antioxidant defence is coupled between neurons and astrocytes. A better understanding of the regulation of this intercellular coupling should be important for identifying novel targets for future therapeutic interventions.     

Glial glutamate transporters mediate a functional metabolic crosstalk between neurons and astrocytes in the mouse developing cortex

Neuron-glia interactions are essential for synaptic function, and glial glutamate (re)uptake plays a key role at glutamatergic synapses. In knockout mice, for either glial glutamate transporters, GLAST or GLT-1, a classical metabolic response to synaptic activation (i.e., enhancement of glucose utilization) is decreased at an early functional stage in the somatosensory barrel cortex following activation of whiskers. Investigation in vitro demonstrates that glial glutamate transport represents a critical step for triggering enhanced glucose utilization, but also lactate release from astrocytes through a mechanism involving changes in intracellular Na(+) concentration. These data suggest that a metabolic crosstalk takes place between neurons and astrocytes in the developing cortex, which would be regulated by synaptic activity and mediated by glial glutamate transporters.     

Vesicular release of glutamate mediates bidirectional signaling between astrocytes and neurons

The major excitatory neurotransmitter in the CNS, glutamate, can be released exocytotically by neurons and astrocytes. Glutamate released from neurons can affect adjacent astrocytes by changing their intracellular Ca²⁺ dynamics and, vice versa , glutamate released from astrocytes can cause a variety of responses in neurons such as: an elevation of [Ca²⁺]_i, a slow inward current, an increase of excitability, modulation of synaptic transmission, synchronization of synaptic events, or some combination of these. This astrocyte-neuron signaling pathway might be a widespread phenomenon throughout the brain with astrocytes possessing the means to be active participants in many functions of the CNS. Thus, it appears that the vesicular release of glutamate can serve as a common denominator for two of the major cellular components of the CNS, astrocytes and neurons, in brain function.     

Reconstruction and flux analysis of coupling between metabolic pathways of astrocytes and neurons: application to cerebral hypoxia

Background

It is a daunting task to identify all the metabolic pathways of brain energy metabolism and develop a dynamic simulation environment that will cover a time scale ranging from seconds to hours. To simplify this task and make it more practicable, we undertook stoichiometric modeling of brain energy metabolism with the major aim of including the main interacting pathways in and between astrocytes and neurons.

Model

The constructed model includes central metabolism (glycolysis, pentose phosphate pathway, TCA cycle), lipid metabolism, reactive oxygen species (ROS) detoxification, amino acid metabolism (synthesis and catabolism), the well-known glutamate-glutamine cycle, other coupling reactions between astrocytes and neurons, and neurotransmitter metabolism. This is, to our knowledge, the most comprehensive attempt at stoichiometric modeling of brain metabolism to date in terms of its coverage of a wide range of metabolic pathways. We then attempted to model the basal physiological behaviour and hypoxic behaviour of the brain cells where astrocytes and neurons are tightly coupled.

Results

The reconstructed stoichiometric reaction model included 217 reactions (184 internal, 33 exchange) and 216 metabolites (183 internal, 33 external) distributed in and between astrocytes and neurons. Flux balance analysis (FBA) techniques were applied to the reconstructed model to elucidate the underlying cellular principles of neuron-astrocyte coupling. Simulation of resting conditions under the constraints of maximization of glutamate/glutamine/GABA cycle fluxes between the two cell types with subsequent minimization of Euclidean norm of fluxes resulted in a flux distribution in accordance with literature-based findings. As a further validation of our model, the effect of oxygen deprivation (hypoxia) on fluxes was simulated using an FBA-derivative approach, known as minimization of metabolic adjustment (MOMA). The results show the power of the constructed model to simulate disease behaviour on the flux level, and its potential to analyze cellular metabolic behaviour in silico.

Conclusion

The predictive power of the constructed model for the key flux distributions, especially central carbon metabolism and glutamate-glutamine cycle fluxes, and its application to hypoxia is promising. The resultant acceptable predictions strengthen the power of such stoichiometric models in the analysis of mammalian cell metabolism.     

Inhibition of glutamine synthesis induces glutamate dehydrogenase-dependent ammonia fixation into alanine in co-cultures of astrocytes and neurons

It has been previously demonstrated that ammonia exposure of neurons and astrocytes in co-culture leads to net synthesis not only of glutamine but also of alanine. The latter process involves the concerted action of glutamate dehydrogenase (GDH) and alanine aminotransferase (ALAT). In the present study it was investigated if the glutamine synthetase (GS) inhibitor methionine sulfoximine (MSO) would enhance alanine synthesis by blocking the GS-dependent ammonia scavenging process. Hence, co-cultures of neurons and astrocytes were incubated for 2.5 h with [U-¹³C]glucose to monitor de novo synthesis of alanine and glutamine in the absence and presence of 5.0 mM NH₄Cl and 10 mM MSO. Ammonia exposure led to increased incorporation of label but not to a significant increase in the amount of these amino acids. However, in the presence of MSO, glutamine synthesis was blocked and synthesis of alanine increased leading to an elevated content intra- as well as extracellularly of this amino acid. Treatment with MSO led to a dramatic decrease in glutamine content and increased the intracellular contents of glutamate and aspartate. The large increase in alanine during exposure to MSO underlines the importance of the GDH and ALAT biosynthetic pathway for ammonia fixation, and it points to the use of a GS inhibitor to ameliorate the brain toxicity and edema induced by hyperammonemia, events likely related to glutamine synthesis.     

Differential negative coupling of type 3 metabotropic glutamate receptor to cyclic GMP levels in neurons and astrocytes

Metabotropic receptors may couple to different G proteins in different cells or perhaps even in different regions of the same cell. To date, direct studies of group II and group III metabotropic glutamate receptors' (mGluRs) relationships to second messenger cascades have reported negative coupling of these receptors to cyclic AMP (cAMP) levels in neurons, astrocytes and transfected cells. In the present study, we found that the peptide neurotransmitter N-acetylaspartylglutamate (NAAG), an mGluR3-selective agonist, decreased sodium nitroprusside (SNP)-stimulated cyclic GMP (cGMP) levels in cerebellar granule cells and cerebellar astrocytes. The mGluR3 and group II agonists FN6 and LY354740 had similar effects on cGMP levels. The mGluR3 and group II antagonists beta-NAAG and LY341495 blocked these actions. Treatment with pertussis toxin inhibited the effects of NAAG on SNP-stimulated cGMP levels in rat cerebellar astrocytes but not in cerebellar neurons. These data support the conclusion that mGluR3 is also coupled to cGMP levels and that this mGluR3-induced reduction of cGMP levels is mediated by different G proteins in cerebellar astrocytes and neurons. We previously reported that this receptor is coupled to a cAMP cascade via a pertussis toxin-sensitive G protein in cerebellar neurons, astrocytes and transfected cells. Taken together with the present data, we propose that mGluR3 is coupled to two different G proteins in granule cell neurons. These data greatly expand knowledge of the range of second messenger cascades induced by mGluR3, and have implications for clinical conditions affected by NAAG and other group II mGluR agonists.     

Functional integration of the transport of ammonium, glutamate and glutamine in astrocytes

This short review surveys the effects of extracellular potassium, released by neuronal activity, on the fluxes of ammonium, glutamate and glutamine in astrocytes. There is evidence that each of these fluxes is modulated by potassium-induced changes in astrocytic pH. The result is viewed as an integrated response to neuronal activity. The unusually high permeability of astrocyte cell membrane to ammonium ions, together with the normal transmembrane gradient of pH, enables astrocytes to accumulate ammonium appreciably. However, at loci of neuronal activity, effective ammonium ion permeability is diminished and the cytosol is alkalinized, resulting in a local decline in intracellular ammonium concentration. Intracellular potassium concentration rises at these same loci, creating the conditions for a 'potassium-ammonium countercurrent' in which ammonium ions migrate intracellularly towards sites of neuronal activity as potassium ions diffuse away.Physiologic elevations of extracellular potassium evoke a marked 'paradoxical' increase in the velocity of glutamate uptake in astrocytes. This increase correlates well with the extent of potassium-induced alkalinization. Further, recent evidence identifies a major transporter of glutamine in astrocytes (System N) as a glutamine/proton exchanger. Potassium can reverse the transmembrane gradient of protons in astrocytes, and increase intracellular glutamine concentration, creating the conditions for a reversal of glutamine flux via System N from uptake to export. These flux changes, evoked by potassium released from active neurons, combine to accelerate glutamate-glutamine cycling.     

Glutamate/glutamine metabolism coupling between astrocytes and glioma cells: Neuroprotection and inhibition of glioma growth

Glioma glutamate release has been shown to promote the growth of glioma cells and induce neuronal injuries from epilepsy to neuronal death. However, potential counteractions from normal astrocytes against glioma glutamate release have not been fully evaluated. In this study, we investigated the glutamate/glutamine cycling between glioma cells and astrocytes and their impact on neuronal function. Co-cultures of glioma cells with astrocytes (CGA) in direct contact were established under different mix ratio of astrocyte/glioma. Culture medium conditioned in these CGAs were sampled for HPLC measurement, for neuronal ratiometric calcium imaging, and for neuronal survival assay. We found: (1) High levels of glutaminase expression in glioma cells, but not in astrocytes, glutaminase enables glioma cells to release large amount of glutamate in the presence of glutamine. (2) Glutamate levels in CGAs were directly determined by the astrocyte/glioma ratios, indicating a balance between glioma glutamate release and astrocyte glutamate uptake. (3) Culture media from CGAs of higher glioma/astrocyte ratios induced stronger neuronal Ca²⁺ response and more severe neuronal death. (4) Co-culturing with astrocytes significantly reduced the growth rate of glioma cells. These results indicate that normal astrocytes in the brain play pivotal roles in glioma growth inhibition and in reducing neuronal injuries from glioma glutamate release. However, as tumor growth, the protective role of astrocytes gradually succumb to glioma cells.