Definitions,measurements, and classifications of stimuli,situations, and environments

A review is presented of issues relevant to the definition, measurement, and classification of stimuli, situations, and environments. Problems such as the lack of adequate definitions of concepts, error and bias in measurement procedures, confusion between measurement of a concept and measurement of its behavioral effects, and the lack of agreement among alternative measures are emphasized. It is suggested that concepts be defined in terms of objective characteristics while allowing for the study of the transactional relationship between organism and environment. The work of the ethologists in defining stimuli while studying their relationship to different organismic states and situational contexts is emphasized in this regard. Following Brunswik, it is also suggested that wherever possible there be a representative sampling of variables in natural settings. Note from the editors: From time to time, Human Ecology will publish a review article. Our first in this series is a review by a psychologist of basic definitional and conceptual problems in environmental studies.This paper was prepared while the author was a Visiting Research Fellow at the Educational Testing Service. The support of ETS and my colleagues in the Division of Psychological Studies is gratefully acknowledged. The review was also supported in part by a grant from the Rutgers University Research Council.     

Synthesis and properties of N-, O-, and S-phospho derivatives of amino acids, peptides, and proteins

The literature on chemical (i.e., nonenzymic) phosphorylation of amino acids, peptides, and proteins is reviewed through 1982. The review covers synthetic methods, chemical reactions, and physical properties, with emphasis on the techniques used for separation and characterization of the products. Synthetic methods are classified by reagent rather than product, and are illustrated by experimental procedures for the most important methods. Chemical reactions are classified into four groups depending on whether the reaction site is the phospho group, the amino group, the carboxyl group, or in the case of serine the hydroxyl group. Physical data are given for all of the known N-, O-, and S-phospho derivatives of the amino acids, peptides, and proteins, within certain limitations, and are discussed in detail in the section on physical properties. Emphasis is given to the techniques used for separation of the products, such as chromatography and electrophoresis, and for characterization of the products, particularly spectroscopy. Medical and other uses of the products are mentioned.     

Cultural, Biochemical, and Immunological Properties of Mima, Herellea, and Flavobacterium Species

From study of cultural and biochemical characteristics of 40 strains of Herellea, Mima, or Flavobacterium species, a proposed schema for identification was developed. The reactions observed by agglutination, gel diffusion, and immunofluorescence suggest antigenic heterogeneity of this group of organisms.     

Synthesis,tautomerism, and antimicrobial,anti-HCV,anti-SSPE,antioxidant, and antitumor activities of arylazobenzosuberones

2-Dimethylaminomethylene-1-benzosuberone 1 was coupled with diazotized aniline derivatives to afford a series of the hitherto unreported 2-arylazo-1-benzosuberones 3a–i. The tautomeric structure and the effect of substituents on the tautomeric form (s) of the products 3a–i were discussed. Similar coupling of the enaminone 1 with diazonium salts of heterocyclic amines gave the respective fused azolotriazino-benzosuberones. Some of the newly synthesized compounds showed potent antimicrobial, anti-HCV, antioxidant, antitumor (as topoisomerase I inhibitors), and antimicrobial activities.     

Count data, detection probabilities, and the demography, dynamics, distribution, and decline of amphibians

The evidence for amphibian population declines is based on count data that were not adjusted for detection probabilities. Such data are not reliable even when collected using standard methods. The formula C = Np (where C is a count, N the true parameter value, and p is a detection probability) relates count data to demography, population size, or distributions. With unadjusted count data, one assumes a linear relationship between C and N and that p is constant. These assumptions are unlikely to be met in studies of amphibian populations. Amphibian population data should be based on methods that account for detection probabilities.     

Low-frequency dynamics and Raman scattering of crystals, of B-, A-, and Z-DNA, and fibers of C-DNA

Normal modes of vibration of DNA in the low-frequency region (10-300 cm-1 interval) have been identified from Raman spectra of crystals of B-DNA [d(CGCAAATTTGCG)], A-DNA [r(GCG)d(CGC) and d(CCCCGGGG)], and Z-DNA [d(CGCGCG) and d(CGCGTG)]. The lowest vibrational frequencies detected in the canonical DNA structures--at 18 +/- 2 cm-1 in the B-DNA crystal, near 24 +/- 2 cm-1 in A-DNA crystals, and near 30 +/- 2 cm-1 in Z-DNA crystals--are shown to correlate well with the degree of DNA hydration in the crystal structures, as well as with the level of hydration in calf thymus DNA fibers. These findings support the assignment [H. Urabe et al. (1985) J. Chem. Phys. 82, 531-535; C. Demarco et al. (1985) Biopolymers 24, 2035-2040] of the lowest frequency Raman band of each DNA to a helix mode, which is dependent primarily upon the degree of helix hydration, rather than upon the intrahelical conformation. The present results show also that B-, A-, C-, and Z-DNA structures can be distinguished from one another on the basis of their characteristic Raman intensity profiles in the region of 40-140 cm-1, even though all structures display two rather similar and complex bands centered within the intervals of 66-72 and 90-120 cm-1. The similarity of Raman frequencies for B-, A-, C-, and Z-DNA suggests that these modes originate from concerted motions of the bases (librations), which are not strongly dependent upon helix backbone geometry or handedness. Correlation of the Raman frequencies and intensities with the DNA base compositions suggests that the complex band near 90-120 cm-1 in all double-helix structures is due to in-plane librational motions of the bases, which involve stretching of the purine-pyrimidine hydrogen bonds. This would explain the centering of the band at higher frequencies in structures containing G.C pairs (greater than 100 cm-1) than in structures containing A.T pairs (less than 100 cm-1), consistent with the strengths of G.C and A.T hydrogen bonding.     

The reproduction and development of sharks,skates, rays and ratfishes: introduction,history, overview,and future prospects

References This volume had its origin in aSymposium on the Reproduction and Development of Cartilaginous Fishes that was held at the annual meetings of the American Elasmobranch Society and the American Society of Ichthyologists and Herpetologists in Charleston, South Carolina in June 1990. The aim of this symposium was to bring together many of those scientists interested in chondrichthyan reproduction and development in order to assess the current state of knowledge in these fields.The chondrichthyan fishes occupy a pivotal position in comparative and evolutionary studies of vertebrate reproduction and development. They are the oldest surviving group of jawed vertebrates and they possess both the adult vertebrate Bauplan and the vertebrate program of embryonic development. The major features of the female reproductive system, including its embryonic origin, structure, physiological function, and biochemistry, apparently were established early in vertebrate evolution and are fully developed in chondrichthyan fishes. These features of the female reproductive system have been retained during the evolution of the other classes of vertebrates. Much the same can be said for the male reproductive system. Moreover, viviparity, placental nourishment of developing embryos, and the hormonal regulation of these events made an initial appearance in this group.The twenty-two articles contained in this volume bring together a wide variety of complementary research by investigators from seven countries. It is hoped that presentation of this disparate body of research and thought in one place will provide perspective on current research activity, call attention to those areas in which the research endeavour is deficient, and identify opportunities for future study. The appearance at this time of a volume on the reproduction and development of cartilaginous fishes is quite opportune. The continued existence of these fishes, which survived the great extinction events of Earth"s history, is now threatened by over-exploitation unless immediate steps for their conservation are undertaken. Knowledge of their reproduction and development not only is an end in itself, but is of critical importance in devising successful conservation and resource management strategies.     

Occurrence of heavy metals,sodium, calcium,and potassium in human hair,teeth, and nails

Heavy metals in biological samples: nails, teeth, and hair were examined during 1991–1993. Investigations of biological samples (hairn=249 samples, teethn=145, nailsn=80 samples) were provided for inhabitants of selected towns in Beskid Śląski. The towns are small mountain towns in southern Poland: Wista, Szczyrk, Istebna, Koniaków, and Jaworzynka. The analysis of ANOVA and MANOVA variances were used for biological samples in the context of age, sex, and type of samples for 12 elements (Pb, Cd, Cr, Zn, Fe, Cu, Mn, Ni, Co, Ca, Na, and K). The matrix correlation and cluster analysis were applied to explain the behavior of metals in human hair, teeth, and nails.     

Pet Loss and Representations of Death,Attachment, Depression,and Euthanasia

Studies that have examined pet loss hypothesize that attachment, representations of death, and the belief in an afterlife for animals may influence owners’ bereavement and depressive outcomes. The following instruments were administered to 159 Italian participants recruited through snowball sampling: the Lexington Attachment to Pets Scale (LAPS), the Pet Bereavement Questionnaire (PBQ), the Testoni Death Representation Scale (TDRS), and Beck’s Depression Inventory II (BDI-II). Questions concerning pet euthanasia-related issues and the relationship between owners and veterinarians were also submitted to the participants. A path model was conducted, showing that the representation of death and the attachment to a pet had a direct effect on pet grief, which in turn had a direct effect on depression. The results show a positive correlation between the LAPS and PBQ factors, particularly with the PBQ factor Grief. The LAPS factors positively correlated with the TDRS representation of Death as a Passage and negatively correlated with the TDRS representation of Death as Annihilation. The LAPS People Substituting factor positively correlated with the total score and the Cognitive-Affective factor of the BDI-II. The PBQ factors positively correlated with the BDI-II, whereas only the TDRS Death as Annihilation factor positively correlated with the BDI-II. Belief in a transcendent dimension was associated with higher scores on the PBQ Guilt factor and the TDRS factors of Death as a Passage and Death as Change, whereas these beliefs were associated with lower scores on the TDRS factor Death as Annihilation.

The results indicated that the sensitivity of the veterinarian and a veterinarian who helps owners make conscious and informed decisions for their pet and choose the right time to perform euthanasia are important variables in the management of pet loss. However, these factors are not sufficient and psychological support should be improved to help owners better cope with grief.     

Sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, zinc, citrate and chloride content of human prostatic and seminal fluid

The ionic composition of human prostatic fluid varied greatly between individuals, reflecting the secretory activity of the gland and the presence or absence of prostatic inflammatory disease. In normal prostatic fluid the major anion was citrate, while chloride concentrations were lower. Their counterions were mainly sodium and potassium, together with calcium, magnesium and zinc. Prostatic secretions from men with prostatitis comprised mainly sodium and chloride. The electrolytes were closely correlated to each other (except for sodium, which was essentially invariant at about 145 nm). The molar changes per mole of citrate were about 0.52, potassium; -0.53, chloride; 0.17, calcium; 0.14, magnesium; and 0.09, zinc. The pH was also associated with citrate, decreasing from 8.0 to 6.2 as the citrate increased. These various ionic changes can be explained as responses to citrate secretion, without the need to propose specific transport mechanisms for the other ions measured. The marked effect of prostatic inflammation on the composition of prostatic fluid can be seen as being due mainly to decreased secretion rather than active modification.     

Transferability of macrolide, lincomycin, and streptogramin resistances between group A, B, and D streptococci, Streptococcus pneumoniae, and Staphylococcus aureus

The transferability of plasmid pRI405 between various streptococci of groups A, B, and D, Streptococcus pneumoniae, and Staphylococcus aureus is described. pRI405 originated from Streptococcus faecalis and encodes for resistance to macrolides, lincomycin, and streptogramin B (MLS resistance). The host range of the well-documented streptococcal plasmid pAM beta 1 was found to be similar to that of pRI405. Cleavage with restriction enzymes suggests that pRI405 belongs to a related family of MLS resistance plasmids.     

Isolation,assay, biosynthesis,metabolism, uptake and translocation,and function of proline in plant cells and tissues

The amino acid L-proline has been the subject of intensive research during the past ten to fifteen years. This stems from the observations that it incorporates into peptide linkage thereby serving as a precursor to peptidyl-bound L-hydroxyproline, a constituent of “extensin,” and that it accumulates when some plants are exposed to diverse biological and environmental stresses. The contents of selected papers which have been published during the last quarter of a century regarding the isolation, assay, biosynthesis, metabolism, transport and function of L-proline within various plant tissues and their cells are both interpreted and summarized in this review. Occasionally, relevant information from animal and bacterial systems concerning these topics is included. Hydroxyproline-containing proteins are not considered. L-proline was reported to be a constituent of leaves as early as the 1950’s. Since then, it and its analogues have been extracted from the organs of a variety of plants. The analogues include: methyl-hydroxylproline; 4-methylene-DL-proline; L-azetidine-2-carboxylic acid; 2,3,cis-3,4-trans-dihydroxy-L-proline; L-pipecolic acid and 4-trans-hydroxypro-line. L-proline can be both detected and quantified by colorimetric, combined fluorometric-amino acid analyzer and gas Chromatographic procedures. L-proline may be synthesized from L-glutamic acid via the following biosynthetic pathway: L-glutamic acid \(\underrightarrow {\gamma - glutamic acid kinase}\) γ-glutamyl phosphate \(\underrightarrow {\gamma - glutamyl phosphate reductase}\) γ-glutamyl semialdehyde \(\underrightarrow {spontaneous cyclization}\) Δ′-pyrroline-5-Carboxylate (P5C) \(\underrightarrow {P5C reductase}\) L-proline. Proline can also originate from L-arginine and L-ornithine. Biosynthesis from the latter compound proceeds either through the γ-glutamyl semialdehyde and pyrroline-5-carboxylate pathway or alternatively a α-keto-δ-aminovaleric and pyrroline-2-carboxylate pathway. The metabolism of L-proline most likely involves the reverse of the biosynthetic pathway with an initial prolyl dehydrogenaseor prolyl oxidasemediated conversion of L-proline to Δ′-pyrroline-5-carboxylate. The metabolism of L-proline has been demonstrated to occur in excised tissues and cell free extracts, cell suspension cultures and reproductive structures. Little is known about the mechanism by which L-proline is taken up by cultured plant cells and excised tissues. Once within the plant Lproline can be translocated through the phloem at velocities similar to those for carbon dioxide assimilates. In addition to serving as a substrate for peptidyl-bound hydroxyproline, L-proline may function as an adaptation to diverse biological and environmental stresses, a cryoprotectant, a nitrogen pool, a precursor for chlorophyll synthesis upon relief of stress, a regulator together with L-histidine of fertility and sterility and/or a substrate for respiration.     

Synthesis,spectroscopic, and antibacterial activity of tetraazamacrocyclic complexes of trivalent chromium,manganese, and iron

A new series of macrocyclic complexes of type [M(TML)X]X₂, where M = Cr(III), Mn(III), or Fe(III), TML is tetradentate macrocyclic ligand, and X = Cl^?, NO₃^?, CH₃COO^? for Cr(III), Fe(III) and X = CH₃COO^? for Mn (III), has been synthesized by condensation of benzil and succinyldihydrazide in the presence of metal salt. The complexes have been so formulated due to the 1:2 electrolytic nature of these complexes as shown by conductivity measurements. The complexes have been characterized with the help of various physicochemical techniques such as elemental analysis, molar conductance, electronic and infrared spectral studies, and magnetic susceptibility. On the basis of these studies, a five-coordinate distorted square pyramidal geometry, in which two nitrogens and two carbonyl oxygen atoms are suitably placed for coordination toward the metal ion, has been proposed for all the complexes. The complexes have been tested for their in vitro antibacterial activity. Some of the complexes show remarkable antibacterial activities against some selected bacterial strains. The minimum inhibitory concentrations shown by these complexes have been compared with those shown by some standard antibiotics such as linezolid and cefaclor.     

The Influence of Shoots, Roots, and Hormones on the Distribution of Leucine, Phosphate, and Benzyladenine

The problem studied was the control of the relative distributionof metabolites to the shoots and roots. The movement of radioactivityapplied as leucine, phosphate, or benzyladenine (BA) was followedin small regenerated bean plants in which the distribution ofradioactive sucrose had been previously studied. Removal ofeither the shoots or the roots greatly reduced the transportof radioactivity in their direction. Auxin and BA partiallyreplaced the growing regions, but their effects were in no wayspecific to the parts of the plant in which they are naturallyformed. Radioactivity from BA, in contrast to the other substanceswhich were studied, moved preferentially towards the shootsand not the roots. The results indicate that the relations betweengrowing shoot and roots involve a direct hormonal interaction.The sinks which develop in response to the hormones may havesome specificity in terms of the substances they require orproduce and whose transport they influence.     

Simultaneous determination of tocopherols,ubiquinols, and ubiquinones in blood,plasma, tissue homogenates,and subcellular fractions

A fast single-step lipid extraction procedure and high-performance liquid chromatography with in-line uv and electrochemical detection are used for the simultaneous quantitative determination of tocopherols, ubiquinols, and ubiquinones in blood, plasma, tissue homogenates, and subcellular fractions. The compounds of interest can be quantitatively extracted into hexane from a sodium dodecyl sulfate-treated aqueous homogenate after precipitation of protein by addition of an equal volume of ethanol. α-, γ-, and δ-Tocopherol, ubiquinol 9, ubiquinol 10, and ubiquinones 9 and 10 can be well separated on a reversed phase column. Ubiquinones are detected at 275 nm by the uv detector, and ubiquinols and tocopherols by the electrochemical detector in the oxidative mode. Quantitation is done by comparing chromatographic peak heights to those of a standard solution containing known amounts of tocopherols, ubiquinols 9 and 10, and ubiquinones 9 and 10, analyzed under identical conditions. The high sensitivity of the electrochemical detection allows operation at low potentials (+0.5 V) with low detector response, but high selectivity for the easily oxidizable tocopherols and ubiquinols and decreased baseline noise. The uv detection limits the overall sensitivity of the procedure to 2 pmol ubiquinone, corresponding to 0.1 μm ubiquinone in the lipid extract. The ranges of values obtained for rat and guinea pig tissues, for rat liver mitochondria, and for blood and plasma from rats and humans are given.     

Metabolomics, genomics, proteomics, and the identification of enzymes and their substrates and products

A large proportion of the genes in any plant genome encode enzymes of primary and specialized (secondary) metabolism. Not all plant primary metabolites, those that are found in all or most species, have been identified. Moreover, only a small portion of the estimated hundreds of thousand specialized metabolites, those found only in restricted lineages, have been studied in any species. The correlative analysis of extensive metabolic profiling and gene expression profiling has proven a powerful approach for the identification of candidate genes and enzymes, particularly those in secondary metabolism. The final characterization of substrates, enzymatic activities, and products requires biochemical analysis, which has been most successful when candidate proteins have homology to other enzymes of known function. The challenges are to identify new types of enzymes and to develop biochemical techniques that are suitable for large-scale analysis.     

Function,distribution, and annotation of characterized cellulases,xylanases, and chitinases from CAZy

Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology - The enzymatic deconstruction of structural polysaccharides, which relies on the production of specific glycoside hydrolases (GHs), is an essential process...     

Comparison of natriuretic,uricosuric, and antihypertensive properties of tienilic acid,bendrofluazide, and spironolactone.

The antihypertensive properties of the new diuretic tienilic acid were investigated. Thirteen previously untreated hypertensive patients took part in a double-blind crossover study in which 30 days'' treatment with tienilic acid 250 mg, bendrofluazide 5 mg, and spironolactone 100 mg were compared. Bendrofluazide caused the greatest natriuresis on the first treatment day and the most rapid fall in blood pressure. The ultimate antihypertensive effect of all three drugs was similar. Tienilic acid caused a noticeable reduction in serum urate concentrations and a rise in urate clearance, in contrast to the other two agents, which caused slight urate retention. Tienilic acid and bendrofluazide caused falls and spironolactone a rise in plasma potassium concentrations. No untoward effects were seen from any of the drugs. It is concluded that tienilic acid is a moderately potent diuretic that lowers plasma urate concentrations. It may be the drug of first choice for hypertensive patients who already have gout or are likely to develop it when taking thiazide diuretics.     

Length and weight of gastrointestinal tracts of pikas, suncus, millardias, mice and rats

The length and weight of gastrointestinal tracts including contents of ten week old male pikas (Ochotona rufescens rufescens) and suncus (Suncus murinus) were measured and they were investigated and compared with those of millardias, ICR-mice and Wistar-rats. The length from the duodenum to the anus of pikas was much longer and the weight from the stomach to the anus was about 16g per 100g of body weight. The weight of cecum was about 7g per body weight and they were heavier than those of other species. The length from the duodenum to the anus of the suncus was short but the weight of the small intestine plus colon and rectum per body weight did not differ from that of other species. The suncus has no cecum but the weight from the stomach to the anus was almost the same as that of rats.     

Super-motifs and evolution of tandem leucine-rich repeats within the small proteoglycans--biglycan, decorin, lumican, fibromodulin, PRELP, keratocan, osteoadherin, epiphycan, and osteoglycin

Leucine-rich repeats (LRRs) with 20-30 amino acids in unit length are present in many proteins from prokaryotes to eukaryotes. The LRR-containing proteins include a family of nine small proteoglycans, forming three distinct subfamilies: class I contains biglycan/PG-I and decorin/PG-II; class II: lumican, fibromodulin, PRELP, keratocan, and osteoadherin; and class III: epiphycan/PG-Lb and osteoglycin or osteoinductive factor. Comparative sequence analysis of the 34 available protein sequences reveals that these proteoglycans have two types of LRRs, which we call S and T. The type S LRR is 21 residues long and has the consensus sequence of xxaPzxLPxxLxxLxLxxNxI. The type T LRR has 26 residues; its consensus sequence is zzxxaxxxxFxxaxxLxxLxLxxNxL. In both "x" indicates variable residue; "z" is frequently a gap; "a" is Val, Leu, or Ile; and I is Ile or Leu. These type S and TLRRs are ordered into two super-motifs--STT with about 73 residues in classes I and II and ST with about 47 residues in class III. The 12 LRRs in the small proteoglycans of I and II are best represented as (STT)4; the seven LRRs of class III as (ST)T(ST)2. Our analyses indicate that classes I/II and III evolved along different paths after the establishment of the precursor ST, and classes I and II also diverged after the establishment of the precursor (STT)4.