Psychometric Properties of the Lexington Attachment to Pets Scale: Mexican Version (LAPS-M)

The Lexington Attachment to Pets Scale (LAPS) is perhaps the most widely used instrument to assess human emotional attachments to pets and is suitable for both dog and cat owners. However, this instrument has not been translated into Spanish. Thus, the present study aimed to assess the psychometric properties of the Mexican version of the Lexington Attachment to Pets Scale (LAPS-M), which was translated into Spanish and adapted for dog owners. We analyzed the internal consistency and factor structure in a convenience sample of 152 people; 56.6% were women and 43.4% were men, with a mean age of 32.4 years (SD = 10.9 years), who had, on average, two dogs for a period of 3.8 years. The results indicate that the scale has excellent internal consistency in its complete version, with a Cronbach's alpha of 0.96, and also in its three subscales, with Cronbach's alpha coefficients ranging from 0.83 to 0.94. Factor analysis suggests a unifactorial structure is appropriate. However, the goodness-of-fit indicated by confirmatory factor analysis statistics would likely improve with a larger sample size. When we compared the central tendency measures of the LAPS-M according to the type of relationship with the dog, we found higher scores among people who considered dogs to be family members than among those who considered dogs to be pets. Furthermore, people who reported that the relationship with their dog was burdensome or stressful had lower scores. We conclude that the Mexican version of the LAPS is adequate and that further studies with larger sample sizes will contribute to the evidence regarding its psychometric properties     

Self-Reported Comprehension Ratings of Dog Behavior by Puppy Owners

ABSTRACT

Dogs show a range of behaviors that reflect their emotional state. It is important that dog owners recognize these behaviors to accurately assess their dog's emotional state. We examined dog owners' self-reported comprehension (SRC) of their dog's emotional state. Eighty-nine participants attending puppy socialization classes at local veterinary clinics in the Melbourne Metropolitan area, Victoria, Australia, rated their comprehension of their dog's emotional states (Happy, Sad, Anxious, Angry, Friendly Greeting, and Anxious Greeting) and listed the behaviors they used to judge the emotional state of their dog. In most cases (Anxious Greeting being the only exception), the owners' perceived comprehension of their dog's emotional state was not closely related to the number of behaviors they reported. The reported behaviors were mostly restricted to vocalizations and gross body movements. There was also no relationship between SRC and dog morphology. There were relationships between SRC and the age and gender of the participant, and previous puppy ownership. It was concluded that most dog owners report having a good understanding of the emotional state of their dogs, when they seem to have low appreciation of the signals that dogs send in the earlier stages of emotional arousal. An approach to lowering dog owners' perception of their comprehension of dog behavior, which may increase their willingness to seek education on dog behavior, and increase the efficacy of the education, is suggested.     

Interpretation of Dog Behavior by Children and Young Adults

This study investigates people's ability to interpret dog behavior. Inability to interpret dog behavior correctly may be a factor contributing to young children's higher likelihood of being bitten by dogs. Children (4- to 10-year-olds) and adults (total n = 550) watched videos of dogs displaying friendly, aggressive, and fearful behavior. They were asked to interpret the dogs' behaviors and to describe which features they had attended to in making their decision. Four- and 6-year-old children were unable to identify fearful dogs, while participants in all age groups were capable of identifying friendly and aggressive behavior (p < 0.001). Misinterpretations of fearful behavior were significantly associated with reports of attending to the dog's face rather than other features (χ² = 80.2, df = 1, p < 0.001). Four-year-olds were particularly likely to report looking at the dog's face and together with 6-year-olds they focused more on one feature rather than multiple features in order to make their decisions. The results show that younger children are less good at interpreting dog behavior, and that they are particularly poor at recognizing fear in dogs, while aggression is the most readily recognized behavior. Children's lower ability to interpret dog behavior seems to be due to the features they focus on. Younger children appear to focus on the dogs' most salient features and not the features that would allow them to correctly interpret the dogs' behavior. For example, 4- and 6-year-olds tended to report attending to the fearful dog's face rather than its tail and general posture. The results suggest it would be beneficial to include information about how to interpret dog behavior in dog-bite prevention programs.     

Dog Breed Stereotype and Exposure to Negative Behavior: Effects on Perceptions of Adoptability

The purpose of the study was to determine if brief exposure to a dog behaving badly or in a friendly manner affects subsequent perceptions of the target dog's and other dogs' adoptability. Participants viewed a videotape of an adoptable German shepherd behaving either aggressively or prosocially and were then asked to rate the characteristics and adoptability of the same and different dogs. The results showed that people who saw the aggressive behavioral schema perceived only the target dog and a dog of the same breed to be significantly less adoptable than dogs of other breeds (p < .01). Results of a principal components analysis showed participants perceived the adoptability of dogs to be related to “sociability”: Adoptable dogs were more approachable, friendly, intelligent, and less dangerous and aggressive (p < .01). Brief exposure to a misbehaving dog prior to making a decision to adopt may unfairly penalize other dogs perceived to be similar to the misbehaving dog.     

Psychometric Evaluation of the Lexington Attachment to Pets Scale (Laps)

Abstract

This paper reports on the development and psychometric evaluation of a scale for assessing emotional attachment of individuals to their pets. Previous attachment scales have suffered variously from low internal consistency and reliance on small or nonrepresentative samples for their development. Telephone interviews of a random, representative sample of 412 pet owners in Fayette County, Kentucky, were completed in September 1990; a 69.5 percent response rate was achieved. From a preliminary set of 42 questions, a final 23-question instrument, the Lexington Attachment to Pets Scale (LAPS), was developed, having excellent psychometric properties. The scale is suitable for use with dog and cat owners. Data on internal consistency, factor structure, and item response theory (IRT) modeling are presented, along with correlations between the LAPS and several domains of variables known to relate to pet attachment.     

Domestic Dogs Use Contextual Information and Tone of Voice when following a Human Pointing Gesture

Domestic dogs are skillful at using the human pointing gesture. In this study we investigated whether dogs take contextual information into account when following pointing gestures, specifically, whether they follow human pointing gestures more readily in the context in which food has been found previously. Also varied was the human''s tone of voice as either imperative or informative. Dogs were more sustained in their searching behavior in the ‘context’ condition as opposed to the ‘no context’ condition, suggesting that they do not simply follow a pointing gesture blindly but use previously acquired contextual information to inform their interpretation of that pointing gesture.Dogs also showed more sustained searching behavior when there was pointing than when there was not, suggesting that they expect to find a referent when they see a human point. Finally, dogs searched more in high-pitched informative trials as opposed to the low-pitched imperative trials, whereas in the latter dogs seemed more inclined to respond by sitting. These findings suggest that a dog''s response to a pointing gesture is flexible and depends on the context as well as the human''s tone of voice.     

The Canine Cuteness Effect: Owner-Perceived Cuteness as a Predictor of Human–Dog Relationship Quality

ABSTRACT

The modern domestic dog's primary function is as a human companion. A strong human–dog relationship may be beneficial to both parties but not all relationships are successful. There is currently no consensus on why some dog–owner relationships flourish and others fail, but relationship quality may be partly influenced by canine characteristics. The extent to which canine cuteness and canine personality factors predict human–dog relationship quality was examined. In study 1, 668 dog owners completed two relationship-quality surveys, rated their dog's personality and physical cuteness, and were invited to submit a photograph of their dog. Personality measures and cuteness ratings predicted each measure of relationship quality, with cuteness being the strongest unique predictor in three of seven standard multiple regression models (all p<0.001). In study 2, 873 independent participants were presented with one of 42 images selected from those provided in study 1. Participants rated the dog's cuteness and its likely personality attributes. Strangers (M=6.69, SD=0.83) typically rated each dog as being less cute than did the owner (M=8.93, SD=1.80; t(41₎=7.39, p<0.001, two tailed), and how cute they perceived the dog to be influenced their ratings of some aspects of its likely personality. Measures of relationship quality provided by owners were not significantly associated with stranger cuteness ratings or with the degree of difference between owner and stranger cuteness ratings. These results suggest a bi-directional relationship between perceived cuteness and other attributes: cute dogs are perceived to have more desirable personality traits, but having a strong relationship with a dog may also inflate its perceived cuteness. These findings have implications for those involved in dog breeding, selection, and training, as well as shelter management.     

Dogs that bite.

OBJECTIVE--To study the circumstances of dog bites and identify risk factors. DESIGN--Postal questionnaire survey and case note review of victims of dog bites referred between 1982 and 1989. SETTING--One referral based regional plastic surgery unit. PATIENTS--146 consecutive patients referred for primary treatment of dog bites, for whom current addresses were available for 133, 107 (81%) of whom returned the questionnaire. RESULTS--The male to female ratio was 74:72; 79 (54%) patients were aged below 15 years. The commonest dogs producing bites were Staffordshire bull terriers (15 cases), Jack Russell terriers (13), medium sized mongrels (10), and Alsatians (nine). 82 of 96 (85%) dogs were male. 29 of 47 (62%) adults were bitten at home and 45 of 60 (75%) children at a friend''s, neighbour''s, or relative''s house. 91 of 107 (85%) bites occurred in the dog''s home. Bites occurred during playing with 13 (12%), petting 14 (13%), or waking 16 (15%) dogs. 45 (42%) bites were judged as unprovoked. 32 bites were identified as severe and 11 attacks as sustained. CONCLUSIONS--Most victims are bitten by male dogs which they either own or have had frequent contact with, and the bite occurs in the dog''s home.     

Preadolescents’ relationships with pet dogs: Relationship continuity and associations with adjustment

Research on human–animal interaction in children has been studied in isolation rather than integrated with core theories of children’s relationships. This study is one of the first to examine how children’s relationships with pet dogs are related to their human relationships (parent–child attachments, friendships) and to child adjustment, and to include observational assessment of children’s interactions with their pet dog. Children (9 to 11 years old, n = 99) completed questionnaires regarding relationships with pet dogs, parents, and friends. Half the children were observed interacting with their pet dog. Children and teachers reported children’s adjustment. Children who felt closer to their dogs were more securely attached to mothers and fathers and reported more positive qualities and less conflict with friends. Children with more secure attachments to mothers, and greater companionship with dogs, interacted more with their dogs. Parental attachment and friendship quality, but not the pet dog relationship, were related to child adjustment.     

Effects of Video Footage Versus Photographs on Perception of Dog Behavioral Traits

Photographs are frequently used to promote adoption of dogs on rescue shelter websites. While physical traits are well illustrated via photographs, conveying a dog's behavioral traits is more problematic. Traits such as sociability, obedience, and friendliness are likely to be better displayed via video footage. This study explored the effects of video versus photographs on the perception of dog behavioral traits. Four dogs from a Gloucestershire Rescue Shelter (2 desirable breeds, 2 from a stigmatized breed) were individually photographed, and a 30-s video of each was recorded. Two questionnaires were produced containing either a video or photograph of each dog. Each questionnaire presented all 4 dogs but via different media. Participants rated their agreement with 12 statements relating to their perceptions of the dog seen. Dogs viewed via video were considered to be more trainable, intelligent, friendly, and gentle and less dominant, aggressive, and unsociable. This finding was observed in desired and stigmatized breeds. Perceived behavioral traits can impact the likelihood of adoption. These findings suggest that greater use of video footage by rehoming shelters could help promote dog adoptions.     

Is That Dog a Pit Bull? A Cross-Country Comparison of Perceptions of Shelter Workers Regarding Breed Identification

Bull breeds are commonly kept as companion animals, but the pit bull terrier is restricted by breed-specific legislation (BSL) in parts of the United States and throughout the United Kingdom. Shelter workers must decide which breed(s) a dog is. This decision may influence the dog's fate, particularly in places with BSL. In this study, shelter workers in the United States and United Kingdom were shown pictures of 20 dogs and were asked what breed each dog was, how they determined each dog's breed, whether each dog was a pit bull, and what they expected the fate of each dog to be. There was much variation in responses both between and within the United States and United Kingdom. UK participants frequently labeled dogs commonly considered by U.S. participants to be pit bulls as Staffordshire bull terriers. UK participants were more likely to say their shelters would euthanize dogs deemed to be pit bulls. Most participants noted using dogs' physical features to determine breed, and 41% affected by BSL indicated they would knowingly mislabel a dog of a restricted breed, presumably to increase the dog's adoption chances.     

Exploring the Relation of Harsh Parental Discipline with Child Emotional and Behavioral Problems by Using Multiple Informants. The Generation R Study

Parental harsh disciplining, like corporal punishment, has consistently been associated with adverse mental health outcomes in children. It remains a challenge to accurately assess the consequences of harsh discipline, as researchers and clinicians generally rely on parent report of young children''s problem behaviors. If parents rate their parenting styles and their child''s behavior this may bias results. The use of child self-report on problem behaviors is not common but may provide extra information about the relation of harsh parental discipline and problem behavior. We examined the independent contribution of young children''s self-report above parental report of emotional and behavioral problems in a study of maternal and paternal harsh discipline in a birth cohort. Maternal and paternal harsh discipline predicted both parent reported behavioral and parent reported emotional problems, but only child reported behavioral problems. Associations were not explained by pre-existing behavioral problems at age 3. Importantly, the association with child reported outcomes was independent from parent reported problem behavior. These results suggest that young children''s self-reports of behavioral problems provide unique information on the effects of harsh parental discipline. Inclusion of child self-reports can therefore help estimate the effects of harsh parental discipline more accurately.     

Frustration Behaviors in Domestic Dogs

During extinction a previously learned behavior stops being reinforced. In addition to the decrease in the rate of the instrumental response, it produces an aversive emotional state known as frustration. This state can be assimilated with the fear reactions that occur after aversive stimuli are introduced at both the physiological and behavioral levels. This study evaluated frustration reactions of domestic dogs (Canis familiaris) during a communicative situation involving interactions with a human. The task included the reinforcement and extinction of the gaze response toward the experimenter's face when the dogs tried to obtain inaccessible food. The dog's frustration reactions during extinction involved an increase in withdrawal and side orientation to the location of the human as well as lying down, ambulation, sniffing, and vocalizations compared with the last acquisition trial. These results are especially relevant for domestic dog training situations in which the extinction technique is commonly used to discourage undesirable behaviors.     

Attachment Anxiety and Avoidance Influence Pet Choice and Pet-directed Behaviors

Attachment theory is a useful lens through which to examine both perceptions and selection of companion animals. Study 1 compared perceptions of dogs and cats, and found that dogs were perceived as having more positive relationship qualities and secure attachment-related characteristics, whereas cats were perceived as having more negative relationship qualities and avoidant attachment-related characteristics. In addition, people perceived relationships with dogs to involve less avoidance and less anxiety relative to relationships with people. In study 2, which built on the findings of study 1, attachment avoidance was negatively associated with wanting to own a pet, whereas attachment anxiety was positive associated with wanting to own a pet. These attachment dimensions were not associated with wanting to own a dog, but lower avoidance and higher anxiety were associated with wanting to own a cat. Study 3 was a longitudinal study of SPCA-type shelter visitors (510 participants, with 169 reporting a recent pet adoption). Lower attachment anxiety predicted recently adopting a dog rather than a cat, though neither anxiety nor avoidance predicted adopting a cat. Individuals who wanted a pet in order to facilitate human relationships were more likely to adopt a dog than a cat. Those high in attachment avoidance reported turning to their pet as a replacement for human companionship, and those high in attachment anxiety reported feeling more concern about their pets requiring more attention. Attachment anxiety and avoidance may influence the decision whether or not to adopt a pet, as well as the motivation underlying the adoption choice. Attachment also may influence the type of pet chosen (i.e., dog versus cat). In addition, attachment may influence the nature of the human–animal relationship, such as the time spent together, and the security felt regarding the relationship.     

News & Analyses

ABSTRACT

The purpose of this study was to examine preschoolers' (n = 11) ability to follow instructions in the presence or absence of a real dog while executing a variety of motor skills tasks. These tasks were divided into one of three general classifications: 1) Modeling Tasks: the children were asked to emulate the behavior of a model, 2) Competition Tasks: the children were asked to do the task faster than a competitor, and 3) Tandem Tasks: the children were asked to do the tasks at the same time as a co-performer. Typical and Identified (language impaired) preschool children were randomly assigned to perform five tasks of each general classification alone, with a human, with a real dog, and with a stuffed dog that was similar in size and appearance to the live dog. Two independent raters rated each child's adherence to instructions (interrater reliability = 0.99) on a 7-point scale. A significant interaction between task classification and type of co-performer revealed that in the Modeling Tasks the preschoolers adhered better to the instructions when the real dog was present relative to the other conditions. In the Tandem Tasks the children adhered to instructions best when they performed the task with a human, followed by the stuffed dog (as manipulated by a human), the real dog, and worst when they were asked to perform the tasks alone. The type of co-performer made no significant difference in the Competition Tasks. These results indicate the presence of a real dog tends to be beneficial for promoting preschoolers' compliance with instructions in motor skills tasks that require modeling behavior, but not in those tasks that stress competition or those performed in tandem.     

The Development and Factor Structure of a Questionnaire Measure of the Strength of Attachment to Pet Dogs

ABSTRACT

A 35-item questionnaire (DAQ: Dog Attachment Questionnaire) involving 5-point Likert responses to items designed to measure aspects of attachment to a pet/companion animal dog was constructed. The content was derived from theoretical treatments of adult human attachment, used in a broad sense as equivalent to an affectional bond. Items based on four groupings were modified for a pet dog. Two samples of dog owners (n = 112 and 306, respectively) were used to investigate the factor structure of the questionnaire, using first exploratory and then confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). The questionnaire showed high overall internal consistency, it indicated a high level of attachment to the pets, and factor analysis indicated a four-factor solution, which was replicated using CFA in Sample 2. Three of these factors produced reliable subscales, indicating (1) degree of closeness with the pet; (2) caring and protecting the pet, and companionship; (3) as a secure base and a source of emotional comfort and well-being. In sample 2, Total DAQ scores were positively related to a single-item pictorial measure of attachment to the dog, and were higher for women than men but not associated with age or duration of ownership.     

Patterns of Brain Activation when Mothers View Their Own Child and Dog: An fMRI Study

Neural substrates underlying the human-pet relationship are largely unknown. We examined fMRI brain activation patterns as mothers viewed images of their own child and dog and an unfamiliar child and dog. There was a common network of brain regions involved in emotion, reward, affiliation, visual processing and social cognition when mothers viewed images of both their child and dog. Viewing images of their child resulted in brain activity in the midbrain (ventral tegmental area/substantia nigra involved in reward/affiliation), while a more posterior cortical brain activation pattern involving fusiform gyrus (visual processing of faces and social cognition) characterized a mother''s response to her dog. Mothers also rated images of their child and dog as eliciting similar levels of excitement (arousal) and pleasantness (valence), although the difference in the own vs. unfamiliar child comparison was larger than the own vs. unfamiliar dog comparison for arousal. Valence ratings of their dog were also positively correlated with ratings of the attachment to their dog. Although there are similarities in the perceived emotional experience and brain function associated with the mother-child and mother-dog bond, there are also key differences that may reflect variance in the evolutionary course and function of these relationships.     

Looking After Chronically III Dogs: Impacts on the Caregiver's Life

ABSTRACT

Studies in human medicine show that care of chronically ill family members can affect the caregiver's life in several ways and cause “caregiver burden.” Companion animals are offered increasingly advanced veterinary treatments, sometimes involving home care. Owners choosing such treatments could thus face similar challenges when caring for their animals. This qualitative study uncovers impacts on an owner's life, when attending to the care of an aged or chronically ill dog and reflects on the differing roles of caregivers with animal and human patients. Twelve dog owners were selected for in-depth interviews based on the dogs' diagnoses, and the choice of treatments and care expected to affect the owner's life. Interviews were recorded, transcribed, and analyzed qualitatively. The dog owners reported several changes in their lives due to their dog's condition: practicalities like extra care, changes in use of the home, and restrictions relating to work, social life, and finances. These were time-consuming, tough, and annoying, but could often be dealt with through planning and prioritizing. Changes in the human–dog relationship and activities caused sadness and frustration, which in turn led to feelings of guilt, and in some cases created a feeling of loss. Also, concerns about the progress of the dog's condition, it's welfare, and euthanasia brought emotional distress and many doubts. The owners did, however, respond to the changes differently and as a result experienced different effects on their own life. This study confirms that the situations of caregivers with human and animal patients are in some ways similar, yet the study also identifies and reflects on some of the differences. These include the caregiver role and the options of assistance as well as euthanasia. Veterinary staff are urged to inform owners about possible impacts on their lives when considering careconsuming treatments, and to be aware of the need for support during treatment as well as in decisions about euthanasia.     

Maternal and paternal controlling feeding practices: reliability and relationships with BMI

Objective: This study aimed to examine the interrelationships between mothers' and fathers' reports on the child‐feeding questionnaire (CFQ), the BMI of parents and their children, and observations of parents' controlling feeding practices at mealtimes. Methods and Procedures: Twenty‐three mothers and twenty‐three fathers of children aged between 18 and 67 months reported on their child‐feeding practices, on their child's height and weight, and were observed during a normal family mealtime at home. Results: No associations were found between mothers' reported and observed feeding practices. Fathers' reported pressure to eat and restriction were associated with more controlling observed mealtime feeding practices. Mothers and fathers did not significantly differ in their reported or observed child‐feeding practices. Children's BMI was not related to maternal or paternal reported or observed feeding practices. More mealtime pressure was observed in parents with a higher BMI. Discussion: Fathers' self‐reports of their mealtime practices are reliable. Mothers' feeding practices may differ when fathers are present and further work should examine mothers at mealtimes with and without fathers. Although children's BMI was not related to parents' use of reported or observed control, parents with a higher BMI were more controlling, highlighting the importance of considering parents' own weight in future studies.