Development of the Pet Bereavement Questionnaire

Abstract

The death of a pet can be a significant stressor for some people and is a known risk factor for depression. The Pet Bereavement Questionnaire (PBQ) was developed to fill the need for a brief, acceptable, well-validated instrument for use in studies of the psychological impact of losing a pet. Initial results suggest that the PBQ has good internal reliability (Cronbach's α = 0.87), as well as good construct validity, with three distinct factors reflecting grief, anger and guilt. Grief was found to correlate strongly with pet attachment. The anger and guilt scales, however, correlated with depressive symptoms. The PBQ discriminated between individuals seeking support after pet loss (who would be expected to show higher levels of bereavement) and those who simply acknowledge the recent loss of a pet. We suggest that future research into pet bereavement use this new questionnaire so that the results of different studies can be compared, normative scores can be developed and researchers in this area can use a single instrument with established construct validity. In particular, we hope the PBQ will be used in treatment outcome research to identify high-risk individuals and test the effectiveness of both existing and novel interventions. Moreover, the PBQ could also be used in clinical settings, such as tertiary care veterinary hospitals, to identify pet owners in need of clinical support services.     

Exploring the Grief Experience Among Callers to a Pet Loss Support Hotline

The present study explored the grief experience among callers to the Ontario Veterinary College Pet Loss Support Hotline (PLSH). Summary notes (n = 75) of the conversations between callers and PLSH volunteers were qualitatively analyzed using content analysis. Major content categories emerging from the analysis include personal pet narrative; perceived support sources; grief experiences; relationship with pet; memorialization; grief coping strategies; grief triggers; decision to euthanize; and veterinary interaction. Findings support that pet loss grief is a broad, complex construct, which can be complicated by a pet owner’s perceptions that they have minimal social support sources and negative veterinary interactions. Pet owners involved in the current study appeared comfortable sharing personal stories about their pet’s death when asked. In addition, memorialization appeared to be widely used by PLSH callers and may have helped them cope with their loss. Importantly, the interaction with veterinary staff was identified to potentially aggravate or alleviate a pet owner’s grief experience. Implications for mental health counselors and veterinary staff are that asking pet owners to tell their pet’s story and explore their support network may have value following the loss of a pet. Also, effectively communicating about memorialization and grief coping strategies may be beneficial when talking to owners experiencing grief. Finally, there continues to be a need for curricula and continuing professional training courses for veterinarians and mental health counselors to address topics such as the human–animal bond, grief, euthanasia, and memorialization practices.     

There for You: Attending Pet Euthanasia and Whether this Relates to Complicated Grief and Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder

ABSTRACT

Recognizing the deep relationship between grief and the loss of a companion animal, veterinarians and mental health practitioners often find themselves consoling pet owners both prior to and in the aftermath of pet euthanasia. Yet how does euthanasia influence this bereavement process? To explore this we examined, using a survey, the correlations between pet euthanasia, Complicated Grief (CG), and Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) amongst a diverse range of pet owners from the state of Hawaii. Participants (n = 236) completed a 37-item questionnaire, the Inventory of Complicated Grief Revised Short Form (ICG-R-SF), and the PTSD Checklist (PCL). Of the participants, 3.4% and 4.7% met the criteria for CG and PTSD, respectively. This paper explores and subdivides respondents into those who attended their companion animal’s euthanasia and those who did not. Our results indicate that physically attending a companion animal’s euthanasia is not correlated with CG or PTSD. As the experience of pet loss itself may be more indicative of psychological distress than whether or not the owner was present at the moment of euthanasia, veterinary staff need not dissuade pet owners from sharing their pet’s final moments.     

Overweight and Obese Pet Owners: Respondent and Pet Characteristics in the Rural Midwestern United States

The obesity epidemic has impacted both people and pets in the rural Midwestern United States (MWUS). Tailoring health advice to the socio-demographic characteristics and dietary patterns of owners and their pets can help promote adherence to health behavior changes for owners and foster health improvements for both owners and pets. The authors completed this cross-sectional study in the rural MWUS with the objective of describing health-related characteristics of non-over-weight/obese versus overweight/obese [NOO vs. OO] cat and dog owners and their pets. The primary aim was to detect differences that could inform health recommendations. For both cat and dog owners, dietary and lifestyle profiles differed between those who were non-overweight/obese and those who were overweight/obese. NOO dog owners trended toward fewer health problems, took fewer medications (p < 0.02), took more supplements (p < 0.03), and ate less fast food (p < 0.03) and more fish (p < 0.001) than OO owners. Dogs owned by NOO owners had more owner-initiated activity (M ± SD: 44.6 ± 63.0 vs. 27.2 ± 26.4 min/d) and were on more supplements (p < 0.003). NOO cat owners were younger (p < 0.03), had fewer health problems (p < 0.04), took fewer medications (p < 0.04), engaged in more exercise (p < 0.02), and ate less fast food (p < 0.03) than OO cat owners. The only significant difference between cats of NOO vs. OO owners was their predominant gender: 57% vs. 74% female (p < 0.01). These findings have implications for marketing, education, and health care for both owners and pets. Further investigation of the relationship between pet ownership and health is warranted.     

Pet Ownership,Type of Pet and Socio-Emotional Development of School Children

ABSTRACT

The current study was designed to compare the socio-emotional characteristics of school children pet owners and children without pets and to examine whether the type of pet is a variable which can differentiate the socio-emotional development of their owners. The subjects, 425 girls and 401 boys, were students of fourth (n=265), sixth (n=295) and eighth (n=266) grade of elementary schools from the metropolitan area of Zagreb, Croatia. Socio-emotional variables assessed in the study were: child attachment to pet, child prosocial orientation, empathy, loneliness, perception of family climate and social anxiety. The data showed that 54.4% of children in the sample were pet owners (26.2% of children in the study had a dog, 9.2% had a cat, and 19.0% had some other pet). In order to answer the main research question, several analyses of variance (gender by grade by pet ownership) were computed for each criterion of socio-emotional development. Significant main effects were obtained for empathy, prosocial orientation and pet attachment, with dog owners being more empathic and prosocially oriented than non-owners, and dog owners and cat owners being more attached to their pets than owners of other kinds of pets. Additional analyses of variance were computed in order to examine the role of attachment in the socio-emotional functioning of the children. Subjects were divided in three sub-groups: non-owners, lower then average attached owners, and higher than average attached owners. Children who scored higher than average on the attachment to pets scale showed significantly higher scores on the empathy and prosocial orientation scales than non-owners and children who scored lower than average on the attachment to pets scale. It was also found that children with higher levels of attachment to pets rated their family climate significantly better than children who had lower attachment to pets.     

Examining Differences between Homebound Older Adult Pet Owners and Non-pet Owners in Depression,Systemic Inflammation,and Executive Function

Homebound older adults are prone to depression, which is linked to systemic inflammation that promotes executive function decline. A companion animal may reduce the negative biobehavioral processes asso- ciated with depression, inflammation, and reduced executive function in homebound older adults. The primary aim of this study was to examine dif- ferences between homebound older adult pet owners and non-pet owners in depression, salivary C-reactive protein (CRP), and executive function. The secondary aim was to determine if the level of attachment to pets was as- sociated with depression, salivary CRP, and executive function. The study was cross-sectional and investigated homebound older adult pet owners and non-pet owners (n = 88) using psychometrically reliable and valid instru- ments (Geriatric Depression Scale Short Form and CLOX 1). Salivary CRP was assessed with immunoassay. Level of attachment to pets was measured using a Likert scale (0–10). Mean age for the total sample was 75 years (SD = 9). Forty-eight (55%) participants owned pets (56% dogs, 25% cats, 4% other pets, 15% both cats and dogs). Pet owners reported a high level of attachment to pets (Median = 10). Pet owners had significantly higher ex- ecutive function than non-pet owners (t = –2.07; p = 0.04) but there were no significant differences in executive function between cat owners and dog owners (t = 1.53; p = 0.14). Pet owners and non-pet owners were similar in depression (t = –1.80, p = 0.08) and salivary CRP levels (t = 0.27, p = 0.79). Level of attachment to pets was significantly and positively correlated with executive function (r = 0.30; p = 0.04) but was not significantly correlated with depression (r = 0.04, p = 0.77) or salivary CRP (r = –0.04, p = 0.80). Compared with non-pet owners, pet owners had better executive function but similar depression and salivary CRP levels. Reasons for these findings are unclear. Significant positive correlation be- tween pet attachment and executive function suggests further investigation in this area. Future studies with larger samples and a longitudinal design are needed to investigate the biobehavioral changes over time in relation to pet ownership, level of attachment to pets, and executive func- tion in homebound older adults.     

Sociodemographics of Pet Ownership among Adolescents in Great Britain: Findings from the HBSC Study in England,Scotland, and Wales

The aim of this study was to assess the prevalence of pet ownership among adolescents in Great Britain and identify any sociodemographic differences between pet owners and non-pet owners. A total of 14,328 11-to 15-year-old adolescents from England, Scotland, and Wales were included in the analysis. Results revealed 15-year-old adolescents were significantly more likely than 11-year-old adolescents to own dogs (OR = 1.146, p < 0.001) but less likely to own fish, reptiles, or amphibians (OR = 0.629, p < 0.001), and small mammals (OR = 0.630, p < 0.001). Thirteen-year-olds were significantly more likely than 11-year-olds to own dogs (OR = 1.240, p = 0.021) and birds (OR = 1.299, p = 0.010), but significantly less likely to own fish, reptiles, or amphibians (OR = 0.795, p < 0.001). No gender differences were found. White adolescents were more likely than non-white adolescents to own all pet types. Those living in single-parent families were significantly more likely than those living with two parents to own dogs (OR = 1.186, p = 0.013) and cats (OR = 1.319, p < 0.001). Furthermore, those who reported living in stepfamilies were also more likely to own cats (OR = 1.428, p < 0.001). Adolescents with siblings were more likely to own cats (OR = 1.391, p = 0.001), fish, reptiles, or amphibians (OR = 1.220, p = 0.037) than adolescents without siblings. Adolescents with employed parents (both or one) were significantly more likely than those with unemployed parents to own dogs (OR = 1.414, p = 0.002) and birds (OR = 1.523, p = 0.018). Adolescents from high-affluence families were less likely than adolescents from low-affluence families to own dogs (OR = 0.888, p = 0.037), small mammals (OR = 0.832, p = 0.005), and birds (OR = 0.801, p = 0.046). Furthermore, family affluence differences were found in different pet types. Differences in all pet types and siblings were also found in a proxy measure of attachment to pets. This study provides evidence that pet ownership is related to several sociodemographic factors. These are relevant to take into account when performing HAI studies on adolescents.     

Pet Loss and Representations of Death,Attachment, Depression,and Euthanasia

Studies that have examined pet loss hypothesize that attachment, representations of death, and the belief in an afterlife for animals may influence owners’ bereavement and depressive outcomes. The following instruments were administered to 159 Italian participants recruited through snowball sampling: the Lexington Attachment to Pets Scale (LAPS), the Pet Bereavement Questionnaire (PBQ), the Testoni Death Representation Scale (TDRS), and Beck’s Depression Inventory II (BDI-II). Questions concerning pet euthanasia-related issues and the relationship between owners and veterinarians were also submitted to the participants. A path model was conducted, showing that the representation of death and the attachment to a pet had a direct effect on pet grief, which in turn had a direct effect on depression. The results show a positive correlation between the LAPS and PBQ factors, particularly with the PBQ factor Grief. The LAPS factors positively correlated with the TDRS representation of Death as a Passage and negatively correlated with the TDRS representation of Death as Annihilation. The LAPS People Substituting factor positively correlated with the total score and the Cognitive-Affective factor of the BDI-II. The PBQ factors positively correlated with the BDI-II, whereas only the TDRS Death as Annihilation factor positively correlated with the BDI-II. Belief in a transcendent dimension was associated with higher scores on the PBQ Guilt factor and the TDRS factors of Death as a Passage and Death as Change, whereas these beliefs were associated with lower scores on the TDRS factor Death as Annihilation.

The results indicated that the sensitivity of the veterinarian and a veterinarian who helps owners make conscious and informed decisions for their pet and choose the right time to perform euthanasia are important variables in the management of pet loss. However, these factors are not sufficient and psychological support should be improved to help owners better cope with grief.     

Pet Loss: Understanding Disenfranchised Grief,Memorial Use,and Posttraumatic Growth

The growing body of literature exploring pet loss suggests that many bereaved pet owners experience disenfranchised grief. Disenfranchised grief occurs when a loss is unacknowledged and the bereaved are unable to express their grief. When grief is considered illegitimate, the bereaved may experience a variety of adverse psychological outcomes, including increased distress and reduced quality of life. Additionally, when grief is inhibited, the individual may be less likely to experience positive changes such as posttraumatic growth. Few studies have considered the relationship between disenfranchisement and posttraumatic growth following the loss of a companion animal. This study investigated the relationship between disenfranchised grief, memorialization, and posttraumatic growth in bereaved pet owners. Grief severity was assessed as a moderator. Using an online survey, respondents (n?=?133) completed standardized measures, including the Pet Bereavement Questionnaire, the Loss of Social Support subscale from the Grief Experience Questionnaire, and the Posttraumatic Growth Inventory-Short Form (PTGI-SF). As hypothesized, there was a significant interaction between disenfranchised grief, grief severity, and posttraumatic growth, suggesting that disenfranchised grief inhibits posttraumatic growth when grief severity is high. Contrary to the hypothesis, there was no relationship between memorial quantity or type and posttraumatic growth. Overall, this study shows that disenfranchised grief can inhibit posttraumatic growth following the loss of a pet, highlighting the complicated relationship between posttraumatic growth, grief intensity, and disenfranchised grief.     

Pet's Presence and Owner's Blood Pressures during the Daily Lives of Pet Owners with Pre- to Mild Hypertension

ABSTRACT

As the population ages the number of older adults living with hypertension (HTN) is rising dramatically. Uncontrolled HTN increases cardiovascular and renal mortality. Ambulatory (A) blood pressure (BP) is a better predictor of HTN-related morbidity and mortality than office BP. Lower BP is the most important therapeutic goal in treating HTN. Any reduction in BP has significant benefits for older adults. The current study was designed to evaluate the impact of the presence of pet dogs and cats on ABP during the daily lives of independently living, older pet owners with pre- to mild HTN. A repeated measures observational study of ABP of 32 pet owners (21 dogs, 8 cats, 3 cat and dog; 29 women) aged 50–83 years with BP 120–150/80–100 mmHg or < 150/100 with anti-hypertensive medication was conducted. Owner's ABPs were recorded every 20 minutes for one day during waking hours at study entry, one month, and three months. Activity monitors and diaries were used to obtain information about activity, mood, and whether the pet and/or another person was present in the room (indoors) or in close proximity (outdoors) with the owner at each assessment. Generalized estimating equation (GEE) analyses for hierarchical data (unstructured correlations) were performed for systolic and diastolic ABP. Mean ABPs were significantly (systolic BP/diastolic BP: dog p = 0.008/ p = 0.002; cat p < 0.009/ p < 0.001) different (systolic BP/diastolic BP mmHg: dog 3.1/1.5; cat –3.0/2.2) when pets were present after controlling for participant's mood (p > 0.05/ p < 0.001), activity intensity (p = 0.026/ p = 0.441), location (p = 0.013/ p = 0.004), and the presence of other people (p = 0.947/ p = 0.723). The presence of a dog was associated with lower systolic and diastolic BP and of a cat was associated with lower diastolic BP and higher systolic BP during their owners' normal daily lives. This finding suggests that pets, especially dogs, may be effective as an adjunctive intervention to slow the development or progression of HTN in older adults. Comparison of ABPs of pet owners with non-owners during their daily lives is warranted and underway.     

Human Grief Resulting from the Death of a Pet

Abstract

This study investigated antecedents of the human grief response which was associated with the death of a pet cat or dog. The sample included 207 voluntary subjects who experienced this type of loss within a one-year time period prior to participating in the study. Data for the predictor variables were obtained from two validated instruments and a questionnaire developed by the author. Data for grief outcome were obtained from another validated instrument on three clinical and three validity scales. The results indicated that level of attachment to the deceased pet, perceived understanding from others and other stressful events combined to have significant predictive ability in grief outcome. Other analyses indicated qualitative differences in grief outcome according to gender of owner and the presence of children and/or more than one other adult in the household. No significant difference was found between single and multiple pet ownership in grief outcome.     

Sociality Motivation and Anthropomorphic Thinking about Pets

Sociality motivation, the need to feel socially connected with others, has been proposed as an important determinant of individual variation in anthropomorphic thinking. Specifically, it has been suggested that people who are socially isolated or disconnected will tend to infer more human-like mental states in animals and other nonhuman agents (computers, robots, metaphysical beings, etc.), than those who have higher levels of contact with other people. We investigated this hypothesis in a community-based sample of cat and dog owners, measuring degree of anthropomorphism by asking them which emotions they believed their pet was capable of experiencing, how likely they were to rely on it for social support, and how attached they were to it. Structural measures of social disconnection, including the number of other adults living in the household and the number of social contacts outside the home, were not generally associated with the tendency to think anthropomorphically about pets. However, owners living in households with no children (under the age of 16 years) reported higher levels of attachment to their pet than did those with children (B = 1.678, p < 0.001), and felt that they derived relatively more social support from it than they did from humans (F_(1,244) = 4.997, p < 0.05, partial η² = 0.020). In addition, a trait-based indicator of social disconnection (self-reported anxiety about human social relationships) was associated with a heightened tendency for owners to report turning to their pet for support (F_(1,244) = 19.617, p < 0.001, partial η² = 0.074), and attributing more human-like emotions to it (F_(1,244) = 8.354, p < 0.005, partial η² = 0.033). These findings support a link between social disconnection and anthropomorphic thinking in a community setting; they also suggest that different forms of social disconnection (structural and trait-based) may generate different types of sociality motivation, and thereby influence different facets of anthropomorphic thinking.     

Therapeutic Riding: Assessing Human Versus Horse Effects

ABSTRACT

This study evaluated the grief process of 58 horse owners who had had their horses euthanized. Owner-present euthanasia was performed in 83% (n=48) of cases, while in 36% of cases the horse was euthanized at the owner's home. The euthanasia was described by the respondents as peaceful in 84% of cases. Respondents appreciated both active support directly after the euthanasia by the veterinarian in 69% (n=40) of cases and a telephone follow-up after a couple of days (67%; n=39). The veterinarian was evaluated as compassionate and friendly by 83% of the respondents (n=48), and as a better veterinarian by 50% of the respondents (n=29). The mean grief index of the respondents was 8.5 (range: 1[low] to 10[high]) and the mean grieving period was 4.4 months. Most respondents (86%) received support from their social environment. This study demonstrated that grief is common after equine euthanasia. The role of the veterinarian in the grieving process is important.     

Reptile Ownership in Balkan Countries: Demographics and Reliance on Veterinary Advice

The objective of the research was to determine the profile of reptile owners (n = 238) in terms of their socio-demographic characteristics and evaluations of veterinarians’ expertise. Reptile owners living in four non-EU Balkan countries (Bosnia and Herzegovina, Macedonia, Montenegro, and Serbia) were randomly selected from two social networks. Statistically significant differences were found in snake, lizard, and turtle owners (p < 0.05) in terms of gender, employment status, and monthly earnings. Male owners of reptiles were slightly more numerous (52%) compared with female owners (48%). Sixty-four percent of reptile owners were over 20 years old. The unemployed reptile owners (16%) were about five times fewer in number compared with those who studied at university and those who were employed. Forty-one percent of reptile owners declared high monthly incomes. Forty percent of reptile owners never contacted and had no experience with veterinarians. Fifty-eight percent of reptile owners contacted or visited veterinarians due to the medical condition of their animals, 14% of them contacted veterinarians for advice on reptile keeping, and only 6% did so for a preventive veterinary examination. Forty-seven percent of reptile owners were satisfied with veterinary services. The importance of the results of this survey is that they can provide a basis for adopting legislation on the ownership of reptiles as pet animals, together with being a baseline for monitoring subsequent changes in interest in these animals as pets. The results also identify the need for more dedication from veterinarians in educating reptile owners, and for necessary adjustments in veterinary education.     

Reasons for Relinquishment and Return of Domestic Cats (Felis Silvestris Catus) to Rescue Shelters in the UK

ABSTRACT

Significant numbers of cats enter rescue and re-homing facilities each year, over half of which are relinquished directly by owners. Identifying the reasons why owners decide to give up their pet is an important step in the development of education strategies to encourage retention of cats by their owners. In addition, identifying why adopting owners fail to retain their new cats is important in the refinement of homing policies. Characteristics of 6,089 cats relinquished and returned to 11 rescue facilities in the UK were recorded over a year. In addition, information was collected on the reason why owners gave up, or brought back, their pet. Sixty percent of cats and kittens entering shelters were relinquished by owners, with 19% being due to owner circumstances, such as moving to rented accommodation or changes in family circumstances. Seven percent were for behavioral reasons, and 5% because of the occurrence of allergy or asthma in owners. Returned cats were significantly more likely to be older (Mann Whitney U, Z = –9.167, p < 0.001) and neutered (Pearson χ² = 110.0, df = 2, p < 0.001) than the general relinquished population. The reasons for original relinquishment and return of owned cats were also significantly different (Pearson χ² = 84.4, df = 6, p < 0.001), with 38% of cats being returned for behavioral reasons, and 18% because of allergy or asthma. The commonest behavioral reason for both relinquishment and return was aggression between cats in the household.     

Children’s Beliefs about Animal Minds (Child-BAM): Associations with Positive and Negative Child–Animal Interactions

Children and animals can have a great impact on each other’s lives, yet little is known about the underpinnings of these relationships. Children’s interactions with animals may be influenced by their belief in animal minds, that animals are sentient and experience thoughts and feelings. This study introduces a newly developed measure of children’s beliefs about animal minds (Child-BAM) and investigates associations between it and factors relating to positive and negative interactions with animals. Using a questionnaire-based survey of over 1,000 6- to 13-year-olds in the UK, the results show that Child-BAM was associated with higher attachment to pets (p < 0.001), compassion (p < 0.001), humane (p < 0.001) and caring behavior (p < 0.001) toward animals, emotional attachment to animals (p = 0.003), and positive attitudes toward animals (p < 0.001). Child-BAM was also associated with less acceptance of intentional animal cruelty (p = 0.001), unintentional animal cruelty (p = 0.007), and animal neglect (p = 0.01). There was a significant difference in Child-BAM between children with pets (p = 0.013), children who had a pet of their own (p = 0.016), and age group (p < 0.001). This study enhances our understanding of the psychological underpinnings of child–animal relationships and highlights the implications for animal welfare education and for preventing childhood animal cruelty.     

The Development and Factor Structure of a Questionnaire Measure of the Strength of Attachment to Pet Dogs

ABSTRACT

A 35-item questionnaire (DAQ: Dog Attachment Questionnaire) involving 5-point Likert responses to items designed to measure aspects of attachment to a pet/companion animal dog was constructed. The content was derived from theoretical treatments of adult human attachment, used in a broad sense as equivalent to an affectional bond. Items based on four groupings were modified for a pet dog. Two samples of dog owners (n = 112 and 306, respectively) were used to investigate the factor structure of the questionnaire, using first exploratory and then confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). The questionnaire showed high overall internal consistency, it indicated a high level of attachment to the pets, and factor analysis indicated a four-factor solution, which was replicated using CFA in Sample 2. Three of these factors produced reliable subscales, indicating (1) degree of closeness with the pet; (2) caring and protecting the pet, and companionship; (3) as a secure base and a source of emotional comfort and well-being. In sample 2, Total DAQ scores were positively related to a single-item pictorial measure of attachment to the dog, and were higher for women than men but not associated with age or duration of ownership.     

The Association of Pet Ownership and Attachment with Perceived Stress among Chinese Adults

Pet ownership is associated with both positive and negative emotions. Given that not everyone responds to pet care in a stressful way, perceptions of companion animals may play a role in how owners respond to them. In this study, we explored the relationship between pet ownership and perceived stress among Chinese pet owners. We also examined the effect of care practices and perceptions of pets on perceived stress. A total of 288 Hong Kong Chinese, adult pet owners, aged 18 to 70 years, were recruited. Participants were surveyed using a self-administered questionnaire covering demographics, pet ownership background, pet attachment, and perceived stress. Regression analyses were performed to examine pet attachment in different demographic groups and its relationship with perceived stress. Moderation and mediation analyses were performed to elucidate their underlying mechanisms. After adjusting for demographics and pet ownership background, greater attachment to a pet was associated with lower stress in owners. The perception of pets as family members minimized the stressful burden of pet care. More time spent caring for a pet increased attachment to that animal which in turn reduced stress in owners. The findings suggest attachment to companion animals and the perception of them as family members can help manage and reduce stress in owners.     

The Role of Gender in Public Perception of Whether Animals Can Experience Grief and Other Emotions

Gender plays a significant role in influencing people's attitudes toward animals, however, little is known about how it influences their attribution of emotions to animals. To investigate the role that gender plays in public attitudes toward animals' experience of emotions and beliefs about whether animals can grieve, a face-to-face survey of 1,000 members of the general public was carried out in Brisbane, Australia. Potential respondents were asked to complete a 10-min “social attitudinal” survey. Males were significantly less likely than females to believe that animals experience complex emotions, including depression (p < 0.05), anxiety (p < 0.05), love (p < 0.01), and grief (p < 0.05), but did not differ in regard to basic emotions including distress, fear, happiness, anger, sadness, and fear. Males were also less likely to believe that animals show some behavioral (eating p < 0.05; vocalizing p < 0.01) changes when they experience grief (p < 0.05) and that animals grieve as a result of separation from a conspecific (p < 0.005). These results demonstrate a greater skepticism in males, compared with females, regarding the attribution of emotions to animals.     

Preferences for Infant Facial Features in Pet Dogs and Cats

A set of infant features (large forehead, large and low‐lying eyes, and bulging cheeks), were described in classical ethology as social releasers, simple stimuli that evoke a stereotyped response, in this case nurturing. We assessed the attractiveness of such features in the faces of dogs or cats (adults and young) or teddy bears or human infants, and also related these preferences to the degree of attachment to a pet. Overall, faces with the infant features were rated as more attractive than those without. Human infant faces were no more attractive than those of kittens or puppies. Pet faces were rated as more attractive by pet owners than non‐pet owners, regardless of whether the faces had infant features. A preference was also found for infant features in teddy bear faces. Women showed higher ratings than men for pets with infant features, but not for human infants or pets without infant features. Parents found human infants’ faces more attractive than did non‐parents, but there were no differences for other faces with infant features. Preferences were to some extent specific to the participant’s preferred pet species. Owners who were more strongly attached to their pets showed stronger preferences for photographs with infant features. The findings are discussed in terms of the concept of social releaser, and its part in the development of attachment to a pet species.