Use of concept mapping in an undergraduate introductory exercise physiology course

Physiology is often considered a challenging course for students. It is up to teachers to structure courses and create learning opportunities that will increase the chance of student success. In an undergraduate exercise physiology course, concept maps are assigned to help students actively process and organize information into manageable and meaningful chunks and to teach them to recognize the patterns and regularities of physiology. Students are first introduced to concept mapping with a commonly relatable nonphysiology concept and are then assigned a series of maps that become more and more complex. Students map the acute response to a drop in blood pressure, the causes of the acute increase in stroke volume during cardiorespiratory exercise, and the factors contributing to an increase in maximal O(2) consumption with cardiorespiratory endurance training. In the process, students draw the integrative nature of physiology, identify causal relationships, and learn about general models and core principles of physiology.     

A blended approach to active learning in a physiology laboratory-based subject facilitated by an e-learning component

Learning via online activities (e-learning) was introduced to facilitate existing face-to-face teaching to encourage more effective student preparation and then informed participation in an undergraduate physiology laboratory-based course. Active learning was encouraged by hypothesis formation and predictions prior to classes, with opportunities for students to amend their e-learning submissions after classes. Automatic or tutor feedback was provided on student submissions. Evaluation of the course was conducted via student questionnaires, individual student interviews, and analysis of student marks in examinations and of the e-learning component. Student feedback on this entire subject in the university-wide quality of teaching survey was very high by University of Melbourne standards and most encouraging for the first implementation of such a curriculum modification. Results from further detailed surveys of student interactions and engagement and correlation analysis between student responses were also very supportive of the effectiveness of the course. There were no significant differences between examination marks in the new course with e-learning and the previous year without e-learning. However, there was a significant correlation between assessment of student e-learning work and their final examination mark. Correlation analysis between various survey responses helped interpret results and strengthened arguments for e-learning and suggested future improvements for student use of e-learning. This mode of e-learning used to support face-to-face learning activities in the laboratory can be adapted for other disciplines and may assist students in developing a greater appreciation and a deeper approach for learning from their practical class experiences.     

Integrating an open-source course management system (Moodle) into the teaching of a first-year medical physiology course: a case study

Educators in medical schools around the world are presently experimenting with innovative ways of using web-based learning to supplement the existing teaching and learning process. We have recently used a popular open-source course management system (CMS) called the modular object-oriented dynamic learning environment (Moodle) to construct an online site (DPhysiol) to facilitate our face-to-face teaching of physiology to a group of first-year students in the Bachelor of Medicine and Bachelor of Surgery program. The integration of the Moodle site into our teaching was assessed using online log activity, student examination marks, and feedback from students. The freely available Moodle platform was simple to use, helped to effectively deliver course materials, and has features that allowed cooperative learning. Students who used the CMS throughout their academic year and commented favorably regarding its use as a complement to the face-to-face classroom sessions. The group of students used the CMS obtained significantly higher scores in the final examination compared with the previous class that did not use the CMS. In addition, there was a significant correlation between student participation and performance in online quizzes and their final examination marks. However, students' overall online usage of the CMS did not correlate with their examination marks. We recommend Moodle as a useful tool for physiology educators who are interested in integrating web-based learning into their existing teaching curriculum.     

Comparing Individual and Group-Negotiated Knowledge Structures in an Introductory Biology Course for Majors

One of the key agendas for the emerging field of disciplinary-based education research is the evaluation of the trajectory of disciplinary knowledge development from novice to expert. However, with the ongoing promotion of student-centered and collaborative undergraduate science classrooms, it is unknown how peer discourse during these exercises might influence (promote or hinder) student construction of expert knowledge. This study documented the knowledge structures of n = 13 undergraduate biology students in a first semester biology course for majors across four instructional units. Participants constructed both individual and group-negotiated concept maps and map complexity, propositional stream similarity, and propositional accuracy were used as measures of quality of knowledge structure. Results indicated that on individually-constructed maps, in general, students had moderate quality knowledge structures when compared to experts. Individual map complexity seemed to increase over time, but stream similarity and propositional accuracy were more dependent on content unit. Group-constructed maps were consistently more accurate than individually-constructed maps. Results are discussed in the context of the use of collaborative concept mapping as a means to develop disciplinary expertise in biology.     

Expanding the traditional physiology class with asynchronous online discussions and collaborative projects

Discussion and writing are very powerful ways to support learning. This article describes the use of a free, asynchronous online forum to expand student-teacher discussions beyond the time/place constraints of the physical physiology classroom. The main participants were medical students enrolled in physiology class at the University of Zagreb Medical School and their teachers. The assessment data were collected by the electronic administration of the software, by anonymous paper questionnaires, and by the results of the final examination in physiology. During one academic year, 25% (n = 55) of 220 students enrolled in a traditional physiology course participated in online discussions. Physiology teachers and other faculty also joined the forum. All forum members (n = 99) posted 395 messages. Nine documents were published by six students who participated in two online collaborative projects. The difference in the mean grade of the final examination in physiology between student members and nonmembers was statistically significant (P = 0.0328, t = 2.1526). Students who participated in Web discussions were self-selected. Likely, they are the most motivated students, who would perform better on the final examination with or without this resource. Nevertheless, using an online forum could be very successful in teaching critical thinking in physiology because the Internet removes traditional time/place barriers. However, new barriers related to technology and behavioral changes are created. For most teachers and students, the main obstacles to information technology implementation are lack of motivation and lack of professional incentives. To overcome these barriers, institutional support is needed for both students and teachers.     

Student responses to a hands-on kinesthetic lecture activity for learning about the oxygen carrying capacity of blood

This article describes a new hands-on, or "kinesthetic," activity for use in a physiology lecture hall to help students comprehend an important concept in cardiopulmonary physiology known as oxygen carrying capacity. One impetus for designing this activity was to address the needs of students who have a preference for kinesthetic learning and to help increase their understanding and engagement during lecture. This activity uses simple inexpensive materials, provides an effective model for demonstrating related pathophysiology, and helps promote active learning. The activity protocol and its implementation are described here in detail. We also report data obtained from student surveys and assessment tools to determine the effectiveness of the activity on student conceptual learning and perceptions. A brief multiple-choice pretest showed that although students had already been introduced to the relevant concepts in lecture, they had not yet mastered these concepts before performing the activity. Two postactivity assessments showed that student performance was significantly improved on the posttest compared with the pretest and that information was largely retained at the end of the course. Survey data showed that one-half of the students stated kinesthetic learning as among their learning preferences, yet nearly all students enjoyed and were engaged in this hands-on kinesthetic activity regardless of their preferences. Most students would recommend it to their peers and expressed a desire for more kinesthetic learning opportunities in the lecture curriculum.     

Toward meaningful learning in undergraduate medical education using concept maps in a PBL pathophysiology course

Problem-based learning (PBL) is now an established method in undergraduate medical education that aims to develop reasoning skills based on clinical problems. More recently, the use of concept mapping in medical education aims to improve meaningful learning. At the New University of Lisbon, we have been using PBL as a major educational method in a pathophysiology course. In 2003-2004, we started to use Inspiration, a computer-based concept mapping tool, with a single tutorial PBL group. A total of 36 maps were constructed related to short cases, already used in the PBL course, in which a certain number of key nodes were hidden to allow the students to fill in the gaps. The results obtained appear to indicate that the use of concept maps stimulated meaningful learning within a PBL course.     

A computer-assisted personalized approach in an undergraduate plant physiology class

We used Computer-Assisted Personalized Approach (CAPA), a networked teaching and learning tool that generates computer individualized homework problem sets, in our large-enrollment introductory plant physiology course. We saw significant improvement in student examination performance with regular homework assignments, with CAPA being an effective and efficient substitute for hand-graded homework. Using CAPA, each student received a printed set of similar but individualized problems of a conceptual (qualitative) and/or quantitative nature with quality graphics. Because each set of problems is unique, students were encouraged to work together to clarify concepts but were required to do their own work for credit. Students could enter answers multiple times without penalty, and they were able to obtain immediate feedback and hints until the due date. These features increased student time on task, allowing higher course standards and student achievement in a diverse student population. CAPA handles routine tasks such as grading, recording, summarizing, and posting grades. In anonymous surveys, students indicated an overwhelming preference for homework in CAPA format, citing several features such as immediate feedback, multiple tries, and on-line accessibility as reasons for their preference. We wrote and used more than 170 problems on 17 topics in introductory plant physiology, cataloging them in a computer library for general access. Representative problems are compared and discussed.     

Blending problem-based learning with Web technology positively impacts student learning outcomes in acid-base physiology

World Wide Web (Web)-based learning (WBL), problem-based learning (PBL), and collaborative learning are at present the most powerful educational options in higher education. A blended (hybrid) course combines traditional face-to-face and WBL approaches in an educational environment that is nonspecific as to time and place. To provide educational services for an undergraduate second-year elective course in acid-base physiology, a rich, student-centered educational Web-environment designed to support PBL was created by using Web Course Tools courseware. The course is designed to require students to work in small collaborative groups using problem solving activities to develop topic understanding. The aim of the study was to identify the impact of the blended WBL-PBL-collaborative learning environment on student learning outcomes. Student test scores and satisfaction survey results from a blended WBL-PBL-based test group (n = 37) were compared with a control group whose instructional opportunities were from a traditional in-class PBL model (n = 84). WBL students scored significantly (t = 3.3952; P = 0.0009) better on the final acid-base physiology examination and expressed a positive attitude to the new learning environment in the satisfaction survey. Expressed in terms of a difference effect, the mean of the treated group (WBL) is at the 76th percentile of the untreated (face-to-face) group, which stands for a "medium" effect size. Thus student progress in the blended WBL-PBL collaborative environment was positively affected by the use of technology.     

Active physiology learning in a diverse class: an analysis of medical student responses in terms of sex, home language, and self-reported test performance

The student body at the Nelson R. Mandela School of Medicine (NRMSM) is very diverse, representing many cultures, religions, and languages. Research has shown that weakness in English can impact student performance. Recent studies have also highlighted sex-based differences in students' learning and listening styles. These factors pose both challenges and opportunities for teachers of physiology. Student presentations were incorporated for a number of years into the traditional didactic second-year medical physiology curriculum at the NRMSM. Feedback obtained about the perceived benefits of these presentations for the learning of gastrointestinal and endocrine physiology included demographic data pertaining to students' sex, home language, and self-reported performance in tests. Analysis of the 50-item questionnaire responses, obtained over a 2-yr period, provided some interesting insights. Student responses to the items differed significantly in 27 of the 50 items in the questionnaire, based on sex alone (22%), sex and home language (7%), home language alone (37%), performance alone (26%), and performance and home language (7%). Our analyses of student perceptions support the findings of other studies and show that factors such as sex, home language, and student performance can play an important role in the way students are motivated to learn. In designing active learning strategies, academics need to take into account the potential influences that might affect student learning in diverse, multicultural, and multilingual classes.     

Conceptual assessment in the biological sciences: a National Science Foundation-sponsored workshop

Twenty-one biology teachers from a variety of disciplines (genetics, ecology, physiology, biochemistry, etc.) met at the University of Colorado to begin discussions about approaches to assessing students' conceptual understanding of biology. We considered what is meant by a "concept" in biology, what the important biological concepts might be, and how to go about developing assessment items about these concepts. We also began the task of creating a community of biologists interested in facilitating meaningful learning in biology. Input from the physiology education community is essential in the process of developing conceptual assessments for physiology.     

Formative assessment in physiology teaching using a wireless classroom communication system

Systems physiology, studied by biomedical engineers, is an analytical way to approach the homeostatic foundations of basic physiology. In many systems physiology courses, students attend lectures and are given homework and reading assignments to complete outside of class. The effectiveness of this traditional approach was compared with an approach in which a wireless classroom communication system was used to provide instant feedback on in-class learning activities and reading assignment quizzes. Homework was eliminated in this approach. The feedback system used stimulated 100% participation in class and facilitated rapid formative assessment. The results of this study indicate that learning of systems physiology concepts including physiology is at least, as if not more, effective when in-class quizzes and activities with instant feedback are used in place of traditional learning activities including homework. When results of this study are interpreted in light of possible effects of the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks on student learning in the test group, it appears that the modified instruction may be more effective than the traditional instruction.     

Model-based reasoning: using visual tools to reveal student learning

Using visual models is common in science and should become more common in classrooms. Our research group has developed and completed studies on the use of a visual modeling tool, the Concept Connector. This modeling tool consists of an online concept mapping Java applet that has automatic scoring functions we refer to as Robograder. The Concept Connector enables students in large introductory science courses to visualize their thinking through online model building. The Concept Connector's flexible scoring system, based on tested grading schemes as well as instructor input, has enabled >1,000 physiology students to build maps of their ideas about plant and animal physiology with the guidance of automatic and immediate online scoring of homework. Criterion concept maps developed by instructors in this project contain numerous expert-generated or "correct" propositions connecting two concept words together with a linking phrase. In this study, holistic algorithms were used to test automated methods of scoring concept maps that might work as well as a human grader.     

Using concept maps to characterise cellular respiration knowledge in undergraduate students

ABSTRACT

Meaningful learning occurs by relating new information to and revising prior knowledge, making it essential to understand student knowledge before helping them move toward a more scientific understanding. In this study, we characterise prior knowledge about cellular respiration in undergraduate students enrolled in introductory biology by analysing student-constructed concept maps (N = 182) and interviews (N = 9). Students were instructed to create concept maps from a bank of 20 concepts with the purpose of interconnecting the processes of cellular respiration, showing how pools of ATP are generated and used, and identifying where the events of cellular respiration occur. Student maps were analysed for content, quality and organisation of knowledge. Interviews were used to corroborate inferences made from concept maps. Students had a simplified understanding of cellular respiration and its processes as evident by cognitive structures with limited quantities of schemas that were vaguely connected and linearly organised. Furthermore, students had a better understanding of glycolysis than fermentation. Instructors can use these findings to help students build better knowledge of cellular respiration by focusing on incorporating relevant schemas, creating quality connections among schemas, and organising their knowledge of cellular respiration to reflect biological complexity.     

Using a high-fidelity patient simulator with first-year medical students to facilitate learning of cardiovascular function curves

Students are relying on technology for learning more than ever, and educators need to adapt to facilitate student learning. High-fidelity patient simulators (HFPS) are usually reserved for the clinical years of medical education and are geared to improve clinical decision skills, teamwork, and patient safety. Finding ways to incorporate HFPS into preclinical medical education represents more of a challenge, and there is limited literature regarding its implementation. The main objective of this study was to implement a HFPS activity into a problem-based curriculum to enhance the learning of basic sciences. More specifically, the focus was to aid in student learning of cardiovascular function curves and help students develop heart failure treatment strategies based on basic cardiovascular physiology concepts. Pretests and posttests, along with student surveys, were used to determine student knowledge and perception of learning in two first-year medical school classes. There was an increase of 21% and 22% in the percentage of students achieving correct answers on a posttest compared with their pretest score. The median number of correct questions increased from pretest scores of 2 and 2.5 to posttest scores of 4 and 5 of a possible total of 6 in each respective year. Student survey data showed agreement that the activity aided in learning. This study suggests that a HFPS activity can be implemented during the preclinical years of medical education to address basic science concepts. Additionally, it suggests that student learning of cardiovascular function curves and heart failure strategies are facilitated.     

Using a course-long theme for inquiry-based laboratories in a comparative physiology course

I developed an inquiry-based laboratory model that uses a central theme throughout the semester to develop in undergraduate biology majors the skills required for conducting science while introducing them to modern and classical physiological techniques. The physiology laboratory uses a goal-oriented approach, with students working cooperatively in small groups to answer basic biological questions. The student teams work to develop skills associated with experimental design, data analysis, written and oral communication, science literacy, and critical thinking. The laboratory curriculum is a research-based model that offers the advantage of students asking open-ended questions by use of a variety of techniques. For the students and instructor alike, this presents an exciting and challenging approach for learning physiology and basic biological principles. Another advantage of this laboratory model is that it is flexible and adaptable; the central theme can be any that the instructor chooses, and the goals and techniques developed are based on student and instructor needs and interests. Students who have completed this model at Loyola College in Maryland have become equipped with the skills essential for any area of the biological sciences and, most importantly, showed elevated excitement and commitment to learning.     

How to teach procedures,problem solving,and concepts in microbial genetics

Flow diagrams, algorithms, decision logic tables, and concept maps are presented as methods for teaching practical procedures, problem solving, and basic concepts in microbial genetics. For practical procedures the aim is to present the sequence of operations clearly, to diagnose and correct possible errors, and to encourage the student to design investigations efficiently. Procedures for problem solving are discussed which give a logical sequence of questions with yes/no answers leading to a finite number of possible solutions. The use of concept maps in the planning of courses and in illustrating the relationships between different aspects of microbial genetics is discussed. It is suggested that the flexible use of these methods should lead to an improved understanding of microbial genetics.     

Evaluating the impact of physical renovation, computerization, and use of an inquiry approach in an undergraduate, allied health human anatomy and physiology lab

This paper describes and evaluates a major renovation of a human anatomy and physiology lab for allied health students. A Howard Hughes Medical Institute award funded an extensive collaboration between faculty involved in teaching the course and faculty with expertise in industrial and furniture design. The resulting physical lab has unique features designed to improve work in groups, student movement, and integration of computers with wet laboratories. The anatomy curriculum was switched from fetal pig dissections to the use of human cadavers, computer animations, and plastic models. An inquiry approach was integrated into the physiology curriculum. Student attitude surveys suggest that the physical and curricular changes resulted in a significant increase in student learning. An experiment designed to specifically test the effect of new vs. old equipment did not support a benefit to new equipment independent of changes in the lab physical environment and curriculum. Because the improvements in student attitude surveys occurred in the physiology but not the anatomy labs, we suggest that at least a portion of the increase is due to the institution of the inquiry approach.     

The efficacy of interactive lecturing for students with diverse science backgrounds

Learning is an active process, and, as such, interactive lectures are considered as the educational best practice. This study investigated the efficacy of interactive lecturing in a module of eight respiratory physiology lectures in a second-year Physiology course with two distinct subcohorts: students with strong science backgrounds and those without. The comparison of student performance in the summative examinations of respiratory physiology allowed us to evaluate the efficacy of interactive lecturing for each subcohort. Formal teaching evaluations were used to gauge the students' perception of interactive lectures. To further validate our findings, we repeated the study in the following year. The introduction of interactive lecturing significantly improved learning outcomes, with this improvement being maintained for the period of this study. Furthermore, students with limited prior knowledge, who had typically performed very poorly in this module, achieved a similar learning outcome to those students with a good science background. From these summative results and the students' perceptions, we concluded that students that are alert, motivated and interested in the subject, and engaged in learning activities and that are being encouraged to think and receive constant feedback on their progress will become confident in their learning abilities and have improved learning outcomes.     

The promise of new ideas and new technology for improving teaching and learning

There have been enormous advances in our understanding of human learning in the past three decades. There have also been important advances in our understanding of the nature of knowledge and new knowledge creation. These advances, when combined with the explosive development of the Internet and other technologies, permit advances in educational practices at least as important as the invention of the printing press in 1460. We have built on the cognitive learning theory of David Ausubel and various sources of new ideas on epistemology. Our research program has focused on understanding meaningful learning and on developing better methods to achieve such learning and to assess progress in meaningful learning. The concept map tool developed in our program has proved to be highly effective both in promoting meaningful learning and in assessing learning outcomes. Concept mapping strategies are also proving powerful for eliciting, capturing, and archiving knowledge of experts and organizations. New technology for creating concept maps developed at the University of West Florida permits easier and better concept map construction, thus facilitating learning, knowledge capture, and local or distance creation and sharing of structured knowledge, especially when utilized with the Internet. A huge gap exists between what we now know to improve learning and use of knowledge and the practices currently in place in most schools and corporations. There are promising projects in progress that may help to achieve accelerated advances. These include projects in schools at all educational levels, including projects in Colombia, Costa Rica, Italy, Spain, and the United States, and collaborative projects with corporate organizations and distance learning projects. Results to date have been encouraging and suggest that we may be moving from the lag phase of educational innovation to a phase of exponential growth.