Among population variation in specialist and generalist seed predation – the importance of host plant distribution, alternative hosts and environmental variation

Pre-dispersal seed predators can have important effects on population dynamics and trait selection in their host plants. However, the factors determining spatial variation in predation intensity are poorly known. We assessed the relative importance of host plant distribution, alternative hosts and environmental factors for among-population variation in predation in a system with three host plants, a specialist and a generalist pre-dispersal seed predator.
Effects of host plant population size were relatively more important in the specialist than in the generalist seed predator. The specialist seed predator Apion opeticum , utilizing only Lathyrus vernus occurred in less than half of the patches, and specialist seed predation was influenced only by host plant population size. The generalist Bruchus atomarius was present in nearly all patches, and generalist predation was influenced by environmental factors and availability of alternative hosts. Predation on alternative hosts was not affected by L. vernus presence.
The results suggest that a wide range of factors influences the strength of plant–seed–predator interactions, and that the relative importance of different factors depend on the degree of specialization. This will result in highly complex selection mosaics and coevolutionary trajectories.     

How does herbivory affect individuals and populations of the perennial herb Paeonia officinalis?

In this study we quantified variability in foliage herbivory and pre-dispersal seed predation and its effects on plant performance and demography in populations of a rare and protected perennial herb, Paeonia officinalis. An individual-based survey was performed during four years in four populations, which contained plants in both open habitat and woodland. We detected marked spatial and temporal variation among and within populations in foliage herbivory (by insects) and pre-dispersal seed predation (by insects, rodents and Roe Deer). Foliage herbivory decreased with plant demographic stages in open habitats, from seedlings to reproductive individuals, but no significant trend was detected in woodland habitats. This may be due to different demographic origin of larger vegetative plants in this habitat. Depending on demographic stage, herbivory was higher in open habitats or not significantly different between habitats. This suggests differences in herbivore abundance in different habitats within sites. Pre-dispersal seed predation remained weak and did not depend on habitat. We did not detect any consequence of foliage herbivory on seedling mortality and individual growth in our study. Our results illustrate the need to investigate plant-herbivore interactions over several years in distinct populations in order to more accurately evaluate herbivore impact on plant population dynamics.     

Environmental context drives seed predator-mediated selection on a floral display trait

Linking trait selection to environmental context is necessary to move beyond the simple recognition that selection is spatially variable and to understand what ultimately drives this variation. Natural selection acts through differences among individuals in lifetime fitness and information about effects on fitness components is therefore often not sufficient to gain such an understanding. We investigated how environmental context influenced intensity of seed predation, flower abortion and selection on floral display traits in 44–52 populations of the perennial herb Primula veris over 2 years. Phenotypic selection on both inflorescence height and flower number varied among populations and was mediated partly by pre-dispersal seed predation and flower abortion in one of the years. Among-population variation in selection on inflorescence height, but not flower number, was linked to variation in canopy cover via its effects on seed predation. Lifetime fitness was less sensitive to seed predator damage in shaded environments but estimates of selection based on lifetime fitness agreed qualitatively with those based on seed output. Our results demonstrate that seed predators constitute an important link between environmental conditions and trait evolution in plants, and that selection on plant traits by seed predators can depend on environmental context.     

Hierarchical Levels of Seed Predation Variation by Introduced Beetles on an Endemic Mediterranean Palm

Seed predators can limit plant recruitment and thus profoundly impinge the dynamics of plant populations, especially when diverse seed predators (e.g., native and introduced) attack particular plant populations. Surprisingly, however, we know little concerning the potential hierarchy of spatial scales (e.g., region, population, patch) and coupled ecological correlates governing variation in the overall impact that native and introduced seed predators have on plant populations. We investigated several spatial scales and ecological correlates of pre-dispersal seed predation by invasive borer beetles in Chamaerops humilis (Arecaceae), a charismatic endemic palm of the Mediteranean basin. To this end, we considered 13 palm populations (115 palms) within four geographical regions of the Iberian Peninsula. The observed interregional differences in percentages of seed predation by invasive beetles were not significant likely because of considerable variation among populations within regions. Among population variation in seed predation was largely related to level of human impact. In general, levels of seed predation were several folds higher in human-altered populations than in natural populations. Within populations, seed predation declined significantly with the increase in amount of persisting fruit pulp, which acted as a barrier against seed predators. Our results revealed that a native species (a palm) is affected by the introduction of related species because of the concurrent introduction of seed predators that feed on both the introduced and native palms. We also show how the impact of invasive seed predators on plants can vary across a hierarchy of levels ranging from variation among individuals within local populations to large scale regional divergences.     

Hierarchical pre-dispersal fitness assessment in a Mediterranean shrub plant

Under the concept of modularity, it is possible to recognise how seed production, as well as any other process affecting it, are hierarchically structured within fruits, within individual plants and within populations. In this work, we analysed the effects of pre-dispersal seed predation by insects upon a set of hierarchical levels in a population of the Mediterranean shrub plant Cistus ladanifer (“rock rose”) throughout a complete fruit-producing season (which takes place during the summer months). Almost all individual plants were predated, which implies that the effects of predation at the population level (regardless of the extent of predation within each individual) were virtually uniform. Within the individuals, however, the predation rate was close to a proportion of 0.5 (half of the fruits of each individual were predated), which indicates that this hierarchical level is likely to be subjected to a differential action of selection. Predation rates within the fruits showed an intermediate value (lower than that observed at the population level but higher than that at the individual level). According to these results, the pressure of phenotypic selection may therefore give rise to greater variation among fruits of the same individual than among seeds of the same fruit. In terms of the temporal patterns observed there was a large variation in the increments of predation along the fruiting season, which implies a high degree of heterogeneity in the temporal distribution of the effects of predation pressure on fitness. Besides its use in the specific example of the plant species studied in this work, the methodological procedure presented in this paper (integration of the temporal changes of different hierarchical levels) might be foreseen, in fact, as a useful tool for analysing the hierarchical structuring of fitness in modular organisms in general. This procedure allows to discriminate and integrate selection pressures and their effects across different phenotypic levels, from the infra-individual ones up to the population level.     

Population variation in the intensity of fruit infestation and pre-dispersal seed predation in Yucca schidigera (Asparagaceae) by its obligate pollinator

Plant Ecology - Variation in the occurrence and the intensity of pre-dispersal seed predation can help understand ecological and evolutionary dynamics of plant populations. Pre-dispersal seed...     

Direct and indirect effects of pollinators and seed predators to selection on plant and floral traits

Although flowering traits are often assumed to be under strong selection by pollinators, significant variation in such traits remains the norm for most plant species. Thus, it is likely that the interactions among plants, mutualists, and other selective agents, such as antagonists, ultimately shape the evolution of floral and flowering traits. We examined the importance of pollination vs pre-dispersal seed predation to selection on plant and floral characters via female plant-reproductive success in Castilleja linariaefolia (Scrophulariaceae). C. linariaefolia is pollinated by hummingbirds and experiences high levels of pre-dispersal seed predation by plume moth and fly larvae in the Rocky Mountains of Colorado, USA, where this work was conducted. We first examined whether female reproduction in C. linariaefolia was limited by pollination. Supplemental pollination only marginally increased components of female reproduction, likely because seed predation masked, in part, the beneficial effects of pollen addition. In unmanipulated populations, we measured calyx length, flower production, and plant height and used path analysis combined with structural equation modeling to quantify their importance to relative seed set through pathways involving pollination vs seed predation. We found that the strength of selection on calyx length, flower production, and plant height was greater for seed predation pathways than for pollination pathways, and one character, calyx length, experienced opposing selection via pollination vs seed predation. These results suggest that the remarkable intraspecific variation in plant and floral characters exhibited by some flowering plants is likely the result of selection driven, at least in part, by pollinators in concert with antagonists, such as pre-dispersal seed predators. This work highlights the subtle but complex interactions that shape floral and vegetative design in natural ecosystems.     

Global Patterns of Pre-Dispersal Propagule Predation in Mangrove Forests1

Mangroves in disparate families produce viviparous seedlings (propagules) that are attacked by many crab and insect predators both before and after dispersal. While post-dispersal predation is viewed as an important factor in structuring many mangrove communities, pre-dispersal predation rates and agents have been characterized for few species. Ten species of mangrove and 3299 propagules were surveyed for pre-dispersal propagule predation at 42 sites around the world. Pre-dispersal predation rates were variable among sites and species, ranging from 0 to 93 percent within sands, with a global total predation rate of 23.3 percent (across all propagules examined) and a mean level of 28.3 percent across sites. Grapsid crabs, Coleoptera and Lepidoptera were the primary predators identified. Forests near human population centers and stands occurring at high intertidal sites exhibited higher levels of propagule predation than those in unpopulated or low-intertidal sites. Predation rates on a species were weakly, negatively correlated with conspecific seedling density at a site. To explore temporal variation in, and ramifications of pre-dispersal predation for propagule growth and abscission dynamics, Rhizophora mangle propagules were monitored over two years at three sites in Belize, Central America. Predation did not significantly reduce hypocotylar growth of germinated propagules on the parent tree, but nearly doubled the abscission rate of premature propagules. Pre-dispersal propagule predation is a ubiquitous feature of mangrove forests world-wide, and must be accounted for in estimates of reproductive output, stand health, and propagule availability for forestry and restoration efforts.     

Environmental context influences the outcome of a plant–seed predator interaction

Mutualistic and antagonistic interactions with animals are known to influence the performance of plants in many ways. Much less is known about how such effects are influenced by the environment and how they translate into effects on plant population dynamics. In this study, we first quantified how pre-dispersal seed predation in the perennial herb Primula veris changes along a continuous gradient of canopy cover. We then used a deterministic demographic modeling approach to investigate how seed predation may influence population growth rate (λ) and how effects depend on environmentally-induced variation in plant demography. Intensity of seed predation increased with the degree of canopy cover, while sensitivity of λ to changes in seed production decreased. This translated into non-linear effects of seed predation on λ along the canopy cover gradient. Despite seed predation rates being highest in closed habitats, the negative effect of seed predation on λ was lower here than in slightly more open habitats. Our results demonstrate that knowledge of the intensity of plant-herbivore interactions does not suffice to infer how animals influence the population dynamics of plants and their distribution. Plant demographic sensitivity and its dependence on the environment need also to be taken into account when assessing the importance of plant–animal interactions.     

Interspecific and annual variation in pre-dispersal seed predation by a granivorous bird in two East Asian hackberries, Celtis biondii and Celtis sinensis

Pre-dispersal seed predation by granivorous birds has potential to limit fruit removal and subsequent seed dispersal by legitimate avian seed dispersers in bird-dispersed plants, especially when the birds form flocks. We monitored pre-dispersal seed predation by the Japanese grosbeak, Eophona personata, of two bird-dispersed hackberry species (Cannabaceae), Celtis biondii (four trees) and Celtis sinensis (10 trees), for 3 years (2005, 2007 and 2008) in a fragmented forest in temperate Japan. Throughout the 3 years, predation was more intense on C. biondii, which, as a consequence, lost a larger part of its fruit crop. Grosbeaks preferred C. biondii seeds that had a comparatively lower energy content and lower hardness than C. sinensis, suggesting an association between seed hardness and selective foraging by grosbeaks. In C. biondii, intensive predation markedly reduced fruit duration and strongly limited fruit removal by seed dispersers, especially in 2007 and 2008. In C. sinensis, seed dispersers consumed fruits throughout the fruiting seasons in all 3 years. In C. biondii, variation in the timing of grosbeak migration among years was associated with annual variation in this bird's effects on fruit removal. Our results demonstrate that seed predation by flocks of granivorous birds can dramatically disrupt seed dispersal in fleshy-fruited plants and suggest the importance of understanding their flocking behaviour.     

Post-dispersal seed predation: consequences for plant demography and evolution

Post-dispersal seed predation is only one of many factors underlying plant demography and evolution. Nevertheless, the generalist feeding habits of many post-dispersal seed predators and the limited ability of plants either to compensate for or to respond to post-dispersal seed losses directly suggest that post-dispersal seed predation may have a considerable impact on plant populations. Seed predators probably have little direct influence on the demography of plants that regenerate exclusively by vegetative means or are buffered by a large active seed bank, but such species are only a minority in most plant communities.In general, ants are significant post-dispersal seed predators in arid and semi-arid ecosystems while they act mainly as seed dispersers rather than as predators in temperate ecosystems. Although studies have probably underestimated the importance of invertebrates and birds as seed predators, rodents appear to have greater potential to influence seed dynamics, and are particularly important in temperate ecosystems. For example, production of mast seed crops is more effective at satiating specialist invertebrate seed predators than generalist vertebrates, and recruitment may be limited by post-dispersal seed predation even during mast years.Both spatial variation in post-dispersal seed predation and differences in predation between species are important elements which facilitate the coexistence of different plant species. Where microsites are limiting, selective post-dispersal seed predators can influence pre-emptive competition for these microsites. Seed size determines the extent of density-dependent predation and the exploitation of buried seed. This suggests that post-dispersal seed predators may also play a role in the evolution of seed characteristics. However, conclusions regarding the ecological and evolutionary impact of post-dispersal seed predators will remain speculative without a more substantial empirical base.     

Pre-dispersal seed predation in gynodioecious Geranium sylvaticum is not affected by plant gender or flowering phenology

Sex-specific interactions with antagonists may explain female maintenance in gynodioecious populations if seeds produced by hermaphroditic plants are preferred over seeds produced by female plants. Among antagonistic interactions, pre-dispersal seed predators have received relatively little attention even though they may exert sex-specific selective pressures on the evolution of floral and flowering traits. In this work, I investigate temporal variation in seed predation in gynodioecious Geranium sylvaticum, where in addition to female and hermaphrodite individuals, plants with an intermediate sexual expression are also present in most populations. Specifically, I examined whether seed predation is linked to flowering phenology, plant gender, and sexual dimorphism in floral and seed traits over the flowering season using an experimental field population. Within the population, I selected female, intermediate, and hermaphrodite plants with different timing of flowering onset (early, mid, or late), and collected seeds across the fruiting period. Seeds were weighed and examined for seed predator damage. The results show that the three genders experienced similar levels of seed predation attack regardless of their flowering phenology, and that overall seed predation was not related to changes in seed production or seed mass. These results suggest that sexual dimorphism in seed predation cannot be responsible for female maintenance in this species.     

Distance-dependence in two Amazonian palms: effects of spatial and temporal variation in seed predator communities

Animals aid population growth and fitness in tropical forest communities through dispersal and negatively impact populations through seed predation. The interaction between dispersal and seed predation can produce distance- or density-dependence; powerful mechanisms for maintaining species diversity incorporated in the Janzen–Connell model. Large mammals, the highest biomass seed predators of intact Amazonian communities and at risk due to human disturbance, are potentially central to these interactions. This study tests the Janzen–Connell model and investigates the impact of mammalian seed predators on seedling recruitment and maintenance of tree diversity. Patterns of both vertebrate and invertebrate seed predation and seedling recruitment were studied in the two most abundant canopy tree species in western Amazonia (Arecaceae: Astrocaryum murumuru and Iriartea deltoidea). We specifically examined effects of both spatial and temporal variation of the highest biomass seed predator in southwest Amazonian forests, the white-lipped peccary (Tayassu pecari), on recruitment through disturbed and undisturbed sites and through a fortuitous 12 year natural extinction and recolonization event of T. pecari. Distance-dependent seedling recruitment was found in Astrocaryum and Iriartea at both sites. However, the median distance of seedlings was ~1.5× farther from reproductive adults in both palms at the undisturbed site. The number of Iriartea seeds escaping predation increased 6,000% in both space and time due to the decline of T. pecari abundance. The results demonstrate that Janzen–Connell effects are stronger in intact ecosystems and tie these mechanistically to changes in seed predator abundance. This study shows that anthropogenic changes in mammal communities decrease the magnitude of Janzen–Connell effects in Amazonian forests and may result in decreases in tree diversity.     

Effects of two types of herbivores on the population dynamics of a perennial herb

The joint effects of multiple herbivores on their shared host plant have received increasing interest recently. The influence of herbivores on population dynamics of their host plants, especially the relative roles of different types of damage, is, however, still poorly understood. Here, we present a modelling approach, including both deterministic and stochastic matrix modelling, to be used in estimating fitness effects of multiple herbivores on perennial plants. We examined the effects and relative roles of two specialist herbivores, a pre-dispersal seed predator, Euphranta connexa, and a leaf-feeding moth, Abrostola asclepiadis, on the population dynamics and long-term fitness of their shared host plant, a long-lived perennial herb Vincetoxicum hirundinaria (Asclepiadaceae). We collected demographic data during 3 years and combined these data with the effects of natural levels of herbivory measured from the same individuals. We found that both seed predation and leaf herbivory reduced population growth of V. hirundinaria, but only very high damage levels changed the growth trend of the vigorously growing study populations from positive to negative. Demographic modelling indicated that seed predation had a greater impact on plant population growth than leaf herbivory. The effect of leaf herbivory was weaker and diminished with increasing level of seed predation. Evaluation of individual fitness components, however, suggested that leaf herbivory contributed more strongly to host plant fitness than seed predation. Our results emphasize that understanding the effects of a particular herbivore on plant population dynamics requires also knowledge on other herbivores present in the system, because the effect of a particular type of herbivory on plant population dynamics is likely to vary according to the intensity of other types of herbivory. Furthermore, evaluating herbivore impact from using individual fitness components does not necessarily reflect the long-term effects on total plant fitness.     

Reproductive success of individuals with different fruit production patterns. What does it mean for the predator satiation hypothesis?

The predator satiation hypothesis states that synchronous periodic production of seeds is an adaptive strategy evolved to reduce the pressure of seed predators. The seed production pattern is crucial to the predator satiation hypothesis, but there are few studies documenting the success of individuals that are in synchrony and out of synchrony with the whole population. This study is based on long-term data on seed production of Sorbus aucuparia and specialised pre-dispersal seed predation by Argyresthia conjugella, in a subalpine spruce forest in the Western Carpathians (Poland). At the population level, we tested whether functional and numerical responses of predators to the variation of fruit production operate. At the individual level, we tested whether individuals with higher interannual variability in their own seed crops and higher synchrony with the population have higher percentages of uninfested fruits. The intensity of pre-dispersal seed predation was high (average 70 %; range 19–100 %). There were both functional and numerical responses of predators to the variation of fruit production at the population level. We found that individuals that were expected to be preferred under seed predator pressure had higher reproductive success. With increasing synchrony of fruit production between individual trees and the population, the percentage of infested fruits decreased. There was also a negative relationship between the interannual variation in individual fruit production and the percentage of infested fruits. These results confirm selection for individuals with a masting strategy. However, the population does not seem well adapted to strong seed predation pressure and we suggest that this may be a result of prolonged diapause of A. conjugella.     

Assessing the potential for indirect interactions between tropical tree species via shared insect seed predators

Natural enemies of plants have the potential to influence the dynamics of plant populations and the structure of plant communities. In diverse tropical forests, research on the effects of plant enemies has largely focused on the diversity-enhancing effects of highly specialized enemies, while the community-level effects of enemies with broader diets have rarely been considered. We investigated the community of insect seed predators interacting with seven tree species in the family Lauraceae on Barro Colorado Island (Panama). We present one of the first quantitative food webs for pre-dispersal insect seed predators and their host plants, and use the information in the web to assess the potential for indirect interactions between the tree species. Our data suggest that there is high potential for indirect interactions between Lauraceae species via their shared seed predators. The strength and direction of these interactions are largely unrelated to the phylogenetic distance and trait similarity between species but are likely governed by the volume of fruit produced by each tree species.     

Seed predation in the legume Crotalaria

Summary In order to evaluate the role of seed predators as selective agents within a population of conspecific plants, the intensity of predispersal seed predation by chewing insects and the variation in predation intensity with individual and season were measured for the legume shrub Crotalaria pallida. In a native, tropical (East African) population, predation intensity averaged 49% for late dry season—early wet season samples, but ranged from less than 20% to near 100% for different individuals. Average seedcrop loss varied markedly with season, and these seasonal shifts differed in two adjacent sites, probably due at least in part to transient predator satiation. However, individual plants differed significantly in intensity of seed predation sustained, and these individual differences were apparently maintained consistently in the face of the seasonal changes. For introduced, temperate-zone (North Carolina, USA) populations of the same species, predation averaged only 16–17%, but the proportionate variation among individuals was even greater than for the African population. These results support the hypothesis that predators inflict substantial differential seed mortality and discriminate consistently among individual plant seedcrops, thus exerting strong selection within plant populations.     

Flowering phenology and compensation for herbivory in<Emphasis Type="Italic"> Ipomopsis aggregata</Emphasis>

The mechanisms and circumstances that affect a plant's ability to tolerate herbivory are subjects of ongoing interest and investigation. Phenological differences, and the timing of flowering with respect to pollinators and pre-dispersal seed predators, may provide one mechanism underlying variable responses of plants to herbivore damage. The subalpine wildflower, Ipomopsis aggregata, grows across a wide range of elevations and, because phenology varies with elevation, phenological delays associated with elevation may affect the ability of I. aggregata to compensate for or tolerate browsing. Thus, we examined the response of I. aggregata to herbivory across an elevation gradient and addressed the interactions among phenological delays imposed by damage, elevation, pre-dispersal seed predation and pollination, on I. aggregata's compensatory response. Among high and low elevation populations in areas near the Rocky Mountain Biological Laboratory (RMBL) in Gothic, Colorado, we compared the responses of naturally browsed, artificially browsed (clipped), and unbrowsed (control) plants of I. aggregata. We compared responses in the date of initiation of flowering, timing of peak bloom, floral display, nectar production and sugar concentration, oviposition and fruit destruction by the pre-dispersal seed predator Hylemya sp. (Anthomyiidae), fruit production, and aboveground biomass production. Clipping had the greatest effect on reproductive success and clipped plants at high elevation exhibited the lowest tolerance for herbivory. The effects of browsing appear to be mediated by flowering phenology, and both browsing and elevation delayed flowering phenology. Time needed for regrowth delays flowering, and thus affects the overlap with seed predators and pollinators. As a result of delayed flowering, naturally browsed and clipped plants incurred lower rates of seed predation. In the absence of seed predation, plants would exhibit a lower tolerance to herbivory since naturally and artificially browsed plants had fewer fruits destroyed by Hylemya larvae. We provide additional evidence that, for populations near the RMBL, clipping and natural browsing do not have the same effect on I. aggregata plants. This may be due to the selection of larger plants by herbivores. Although under some conditions plants may tolerate browsing, in areas where the growing season is short a phenological delay imposed by damage is likely to significantly reduce plant fitness. Identifying the mechanisms that allow plants to tolerate herbivore damage will help to develop a general framework for understanding the role of tolerance in plant population and community dynamics, as well as plant-herbivore interactions.     

Seed predators limit plant recruitment in Neotropical savannas

Despite the well‐documented impacts of consumers on seed abundance the link between seed predation and plant population dynamics remains poorly understood because experimental studies linking patterns of predation with seedling establishment are rare. We used experimental manipulations with six woody plant species to elucidate the effects of seed predator type, habitat, and plant species identity on rates of seed predation and seedling recruitment in the Neotropical savannas known as the Cerrado. We found that seed predation rates are consistently high across a diversity of local habitat types, with important inter‐habitat variation in seed predation for three of the six species used in our experiments. We also found that seed predation has a clear demographic signal – experimentally excluding predators resulted in higher rates of seedling establishment over the course of two seasons. Because the intensity of seed predation varied between species and habitats, it may play a role in structuring local patterns of plant abundance and community composition. Finally, our results lend support to the recent hypothesis that herbivores have major and underappreciated impacts in Neotropical savannas, and that top–down factors can influence the demography of plants in this extensive and biodiversity‐rich biome in previously unexplored ways.     

Pre-Dispersal Seed Predation in a Species-Rich Forest Community: Patterns and the Interplay with Determinants

Pre-dispersal seed predation (PDSP) is commonly observed in woody plants, and recognized as a driver of seed production variability that is critical for successful regeneration. Earlier studies on PDSP and its determinants were mostly species specific, with community-level PDSP rarely estimated; and the interactions between the temporal variability of seed production and PDSP remain elusive. In this study, the community seed rain of woody plants in a mixed evergreen-deciduous broadleaf forest was monitored for seven years. We examined predation on collected seeds and analyzed the determinants of PDSP. PDSP was recorded in 17 out of 44 woody plant species, and three-quarters of PDSP was due to insect predators. Annual seed production varied substantially at community level, reversely linked with the temporal variation of PDSP rate. The PDSP rate was biased regarding fruit types, and being significantly correlated with seed mass when using phylogenetic independent contrasts (PICs) or without taking into account phylogenetic relations, especially for nuts. PDSP rate was also negatively correlated with seed density, showing a threshold-related predator satiation effect. The community-level PDSP rate was primarily determined by tree height, fruit type, and interannual variation of seed production and seed mass. Our analysis revealed a causal link between seed production and the dynamics of PDSP rate at the community level. The predator satiation effect was primarily contributed by the dominant species, whereas the rare species seemed to apply a distinct “hide-and-seek” strategy to control the risk of PDSP. The mechanistic difference of seed production between the common and rare species can shed new light on species coexistence and community assembly. Long-term monitoring of both seed rain and seed predation is required for understanding the ecological and evolutionary implications of species regeneration strategies in a species-rich forest community.