Differences in Earthworm Densities and Nitrogen Dynamics in Soils Under Exotic and Native Plant Species

Previous studies of the invasion of two exotic plants – Berberis thunbergii and Microstegium vimineum – in hardwood forests of New Jersey have shown a significant increase of pH in soils under the invasive plants as compared with soils from under native shrubs (Vaccinium spp). We present a further investigation of soil properties under the exotic plants in question. We measured the densities of earthworms in the soil under the two exotics and the native shrubs in three parks in New Jersey. In the same populations we also measured the extractable ammonium and nitrate in the top 5 cm of the soil, as well as the respiration of the soils and the potential rates of mineralization (aerobic lab incubation). In addition, we measured the nitrate reductase activity in leaves of the two exotic plants and several native shrubs and trees. Although there were differences between parks, we observed significantly higher earthworm densities in the soil under the exotic species. The worms were all European species. Soil pH, available nitrate and net potential nitrification were significantly higher in soils under the two exotic species. In contrast, total soil C and N and net ammonification were significantly higher under native vegetation. Nitrate reductase activities were much higher in the leaves of exotic plants than in the leaves of native shrubs and trees. Changes in soil properties, especially the change in nitrogen cycling, associated with the invasion of these two plant species may permit the invasion of other weedy or exotic species. Our results also suggest that even if the two exotic species were removed, the restoration of the native flora might be inhibited by the high nitrate concentrations in the soil.     

Mineral Nutrient Requirements of Pinus silvestris and Picea abies Seedlings

The mineral nutrient requirements of Pinus silvestris L. and Picea abies Karst. were studied according to previously published methods applied to a series of various plant species. The optimum nutrient proportions are similar to those of Vaccinium, with a lower relative potassium requirement than birch and other broad-leaf species. Various ratios between ammonium and nitrate nitrogen were about equally efficient except for a minor growth reduction with pure nitrate, which gave a comparatively low nitrogen content and a high cation/nitrogen ratio. The rate of ammonium uptake was much higher than that of nitrate when both sources were supplied. The required total concentration in the nutrient solution for maximum growth is lower in pine than in spruce, but both fall within the low salt range. Both species, especially pine, are sensitive to high salt concentrations. Although pine and spruce grow on the same type of soils as Vaccinium— leached soils with low base saturation – accumulation of calcium or other cations is not as pronounced as in Vaccinium, especially not in pine. The results are compared with results from similar experiments with a series of other conifers. All the conifers have more flexible cation uptake mechanisms than Vaccinium but the results indicate tendencies to accumulation of anions, nitrate and phosphate. Recommended fertilizer compositions for forest fertilization and nurseries are discussed.     

CHEMOSENSORY RESPONSES OF THE SYMBIOTIC DINOFLAGELLATE SYMBIODINIUM MICROADRIATICUM (DINOPHYCEAE)1

Motile Symbiodinium microadriaticum (Freudenthal 1962) were attracted to a variety of nitrogen-containing compounds, including ammonium, nitrate, urea and some amino acids. No chemosensory response to phosphate, sulphate, vitamins, trace metals or sugars was evident. Motile algae responded to concentrations of ammonium, nitrate, and urea at least as low as 10^?6 M. High concentrations (≥ 10^?2 M) of ammonium appeared to inhibit attraction of motile algae. Calculations using ammonium release rates from various aposymbiotic hosts suggest that motile S. microadriaticum can respond to released ammonium ca. 1 cm from the source. Cultured algae were not attracted to combined nitrogen cues for at least 2 days after inoculation into seawater with dissolved combined low nitrogen. Algae freshly isolated from starved animals were normally motile the day following isolation and attracted to ammonium and nitrate when maintained in seawater containing < 1 μM ammonium and nitrate. The algae lost their ability to orient to nitrogen attractants the day after incubation into culture medium containing high levels of ammonium and nitrate. These results suggest that chemosensory behavior is suppressed when nutrients are present in the ambient medium or are stored by the alga. There were few differences in chemosensory abilities in different strains of S. microadriaticum to the attractants assayed, suggesting that selection for a particular strain by a host species may not be due to differential chemosensory ability or cues. However, the absence of chemical attraction of motile S. microadriaticum to infected hosts may act to preserve strain selection occurring at other steps in the infection process of aposymbiotic hosts.     

Effects of nitrogen availability on competition between Bromus tectorum and Bouteloua gracilis

Exotic plant invasions are a serious concern for land managers and conservationists. There is evidence that increased nitrogen availability favors exotic species and decreased nitrogen availability favors non-weedy native species. This study was conducted to test the effect of nitrogen availability on competition between two grass species with contrasting life histories, cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum), a North American exotic, and blue grama (Bouteloua gracilis), a North American native. We investigated the effects of nitrogen availability and competition on aboveground biomass, belowground biomass, height, and % nitrogen tissue concentrations by growing the two species in the greenhouse under five levels of nitrogen and six levels of competition. Nitrogen availability affected competition between Bromus tectorum and Bouteloua gracilis. At the lowest level of N availability, neither species was affected by competition. As N availability increased, aboveground biomass gain of Bromus was more negatively affected by intraspecific competition relative to interspecific competition while the opposite occurred for Bouteloua. At the competition level at which each species gained the most aboveground biomass, Bromus had a linear response to increasing N availability while the response of Bouteloua was asymptotic. Our results do provide some support for the theory that fast growing exotic species have a rapid response to nutrient enrichment while native non-weedy species do not, and that low N levels can reduce competitive pressure from the exotic on the native.     

The effects of nitrate loading on the invasive macrophyte Hydrilla verticillata and two common, native macrophytes in Florida

Rising nitrate concentrations in the water column and the spread of invasive, non-native macrophytes are two major threats to Florida's oligotrophic, freshwater ecosystems. We used a replicated mesocosm experiment to test the effects of elevated nitrate concentrations in the water on the growth of the invasive macrophyte Hydrilla verticillata and two common, native submerged macrophytes Vallisneria americana and Sagittaria kurziana. Results from this study indicate that nitrate concentrations of 1.0 mg L⁻¹ NO₃-N in the water increased the final dry-weight biomass of H. verticillata by 2.75 times, while having no statistical effect on the growth of the two native species. Additionally, H. verticillata grew at a faster rate than the two native species in the low nitrate treatments accounting for 82% of the total biomass, indicating that it may have the capacity to invade relatively pristine communities. In waters where nitrate concentrations continue to rise, the cost of control efforts for H. verticillata may substantially increase in the future.     

Nitrogen uptake and preference in a forest understory following invasion by an exotic grass

Plant–soil interactions have been proposed as a causative mechanism explaining how invasive plant species impact ecosystem processes. We evaluate whether an invasive plant influences plant and soil-microbe acquisition of nitrogen to elucidate the mechanistic pathways by which invaders might alter N availability. Using a ¹⁵N tracer, we quantify differences in nitrogen uptake and allocation in communities with and without Microstegium vimineum, a shade-tolerant, C₄ grass that is rapidly invading the understories of eastern US deciduous forests. We further investigate if plants or the microbial biomass exhibit preferences for certain nitrogen forms (glycine, nitrate, and ammonium) to gain insight into nitrogen partitioning in invaded communities. Understory native plants and M. vimineum took up similar amounts of added nitrogen but allocated it differently, with native plants allocating primarily to roots and M. vimineum allocating most nitrogen to shoots. Plant nitrogen uptake was higher in invaded communities due primarily to the increase in understory biomass when M. vimineum was present, but for the microbial biomass, nitrogen uptake did not vary with invasion status. This translated to a significant reduction (P < 0.001) in the ratio of microbial biomass to plant biomass nitrogen uptake, which suggests that, although the demand for nitrogen has intensified, microbes continue to be effective nitrogen competitors. The microbial biomass exhibited a strong preference for ammonium over glycine and nitrate, regardless of invasion status. By comparison, native plants showed no nitrogen preferences and M. vimineum preferred inorganic nitrogen species. We interpret our findings as evidence that invasion by M. vimineum leads to changes in the partitioning of nitrogen above and belowground in forest understories, and to decreases in the microbial biomass, but it does not affect the outcome of plant–microbe–nitrogen interactions, possibly due to functional shifts in the microbial community as a result of invasion.     

Constrained preferences in nitrogen uptake across plant species and environments

Knowledge of determining factors for nitrogen uptake preferences and how they are modified in changing environments are critical to understand ecosystem nitrogen cycling and to predict plant responses to future environmental changes. Two ¹⁵N tracer experiments utilizing a unique differential labelled nitrogen source were employed in both African savannas and greenhouse settings. The results demonstrated that nitrogen uptake preferences were constrained by the climatic conditions. As mainly indicated by root δ¹⁵N signatures at 1:1 ammonium/nitrate ratio, in the drier environments, plants preferred nitrate and in the wetter environments they preferred ammonium. Nitrogen uptake preferences were different across different ecosystems (e.g. from drier to wetter environments) even for the same species. More significantly, our experiments showed that the plant progeny continued to exhibit the same nitrogen preference as the parent plants in the field, even when removed from their native environment and the nitrogen source was changed dramatically. The climatic constraint of nitrogen uptake preference is likely influenced by ammonium/nitrate ratios in the native habitats of the plants. The constancy in nitrogen preference has important implications in predicting the success of plant communities in their response to climate change, to seed bank use and to reforestation efforts.     

植物氮形态利用策略及对外来植物入侵性的影响

氮是影响外来植物入侵性的重要因素之一, 但相关研究多关注土壤氮水平的效应, 较少考虑氮形态的作用。为从土壤氮形态利用的角度阐释外来植物的入侵机制, 本文在植物氮形态利用策略分析的基础上, 综述了外来植物氮形态利用的偏好性及其对入侵性的影响。植物的氮形态利用策略有偏好性和可塑性两种, 这可能与植物对土壤氮形态特性的长期适应有关; 植物不仅可以对土壤氮形态做出响应, 而且还能改造土壤氮形态, 并对改变后的土壤氮形态做出反馈响应。很多外来植物入侵硝态氮占优势的干扰生境, 偏好硝态氮的外来植物与本地植物竞争硝态氮; 而偏好铵态氮的外来植物通过抑制土壤硝化作用, 营造铵态氮环境, 促进自身生长, 同时抑制偏好硝态氮的本地植物生长。然而, 植物氮形态利用策略不是一成不变的, 而是受多种生物和非生物因素共同作用影响的复杂过程, 今后应加强多因素交互作用对外来入侵植物氮形态利用策略的影响及机制研究, 更好地揭示氮形态利用策略, 尤其是氮形态利用的可塑性与外来植物入侵性的关系。     

The metabolic flux phenotype of heterotrophic Arabidopsis cells reveals a complex response to changes in nitrogen supply

The extent to which individual plants utilise nitrate and ammonium, the two principal nitrogen sources in the rhizosphere, is variable and many species require a balance between the two forms for optimal growth. The effects of nitrate and ammonium on gene expression, enzyme activity and metabolite composition have been documented extensively with the aim of understanding the way in which plant cells respond to the different forms of nitrogen, but ultimately the impact of these changes on the organisation and operation of the central metabolic network can only be addressed by analysing the fluxes supported by the network. Accordingly steady‐state metabolic flux analysis was used to define the metabolic phenotype of a heterotrophic Arabidopsis thaliana cell culture grown in Murashige and Skoog and ammonium‐free media, treatments that influenced growth and biomass composition. Fluxes through the central metabolic network were deduced from the redistribution of label into metabolic intermediates and end products observed when cells were labelled with [1‐¹³C]‐, [2‐¹³C]‐ or [¹³C₆]glucose, in tandem with ¹⁴C‐measurements of the net accumulation of biomass. Analysis of the flux maps showed that: (i) flux through the oxidative pentose phosphate pathway varied independently of the reductant demand for biosynthesis, (ii) non‐plastidic processes made a significant and variable contribution to the provision of reducing power for the plastid, and (iii) the inclusion of ammonium in the growth medium increased cell maintenance costs, in agreement with the futile cycling model of ammonium toxicity. These conclusions highlight the complexity of the metabolic response to a change in nitrogen nutrition.     

Organic and inorganic nitrogen utilization by nitrogen-stressed cyanobacteria during bloom conditions

Cyanobacterial blooms often occur in lakes that have high phosphorus (P) and low nitrogen (N) concentrations, and the growth rate of the blooms is often constrained by N. For these reasons, many researchers have suggested that regulation of both P and N is required to control eutrophication. However, because N occurs in many bioavailable forms, regulation of a particular form may be beneficial rather than regulation of all N forms. To address how N-stressed cyanobacteria respond to various N inputs, N enrichment experiments (nitrate, ammonium, urea, and alanine) were performed during N-limited cyanobacterial blooms in Maumee and Sandusky Bays of Lake Erie and in Grand Lake St. Marys (GLSM). Bioavailable N (nitrate, urea, and ammonium) concentrations were also determined. Microcystis aeruginosa dominated the Maumee Bay bloom, where the highest growth rates were in response to ammonium additions, and lowest growth rates were in response to nitrate. Urea and the amino acid alanine resulted in intermediate growth rates. Planktothrix agardhii dominated the Sandusky Bay and GLSM blooms, where nitrate, ammonium, and urea addition resulted in similar growth rates. Additions of alanine did not stimulate growth of the Planktothrix blooms. Incubations using stable isotope ¹⁵N showed the cyanobacteria had a preference for ammonium, but the other forms were also assimilated in the presence of ammonium. These results show that cyanobacterial blooms will assimilate multiple forms of N to support growth. Thus, if lake managers do decide that N abatement is necessary, then all forms of bioavailable N need to be constrained.     

Nodule growth and nitrogen fixation of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Calopogonium mucunoides</Emphasis> L. show low sensitivity to nitrate

It is well established that nitrate is a potent inhibitor of nodulation and nitrogen fixation in legumes. The objective of this study was to demonstrate the relative insensitivity of these processes to nitrate with Calopogonium mucunoides, a tropical South American perennial legume, native to the cerrado (savannah) region. It was found that nodule number was reduced by about half in the presence of high levels of nitrate (15 mM) but nodule growth (total nodule mass per plant) and nitrogen fixation (acetylene reduction activity and xylem sap ureide levels) were not affected. Other sources of N (ammonium and urea) were also without effect at these concentrations. At even higher concentrations (30 mM), nitrate did promote significant inhibition (ca. 50%) of acetylene reduction activity, but no significant reduction in xylem sap ureides was found. The extraordinary insensitivity of nodulation and N₂ fixation of C. mucunoides to nitrate suggests that this species should be useful in studies aimed at elucidating the mechanisms of nitrate inhibition of these processes.     

Experimental test of the Invasional Meltdown Hypothesis: an exotic herbivore facilitates an exotic plant,but the plant does not reciprocally facilitate the herbivore

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High Nitrogen and Phosphorous Acquisition by Belowground Parts of Caulerpa prolifera (Chlorophyta) Contribute to the Species' Rapid Spread in Ria Formosa Lagoon,Southern Portugal

Despite worldwide proliferation of the genus Caulerpa and subsequent effects on benthic communities, little is known about the nutritional physiology of the Caulerpales. Here, we investigated the uptake rates of ammonium, nitrate, amino acids, and phosphate through the fronds and rhizoids + stolon, the internal translocation of nitrogen, and developed a nitrogen budget for the rapidly spreading Caulerpa prolifera in Ria Formosa lagoon, southern Portugal. Caulerpa prolifera acquired nutrients by both aboveground and belowground parts at similar rates, except nitrate, for which fronds showed 2-fold higher uptake rates. Ammonium was the preferential nitrogen source (81% of the total nitrogen acquisition), and amino acids, which accounted for a significant fraction of total N acquisition (19%), were taken up at faster rates than nitrate. Basipetal translocation of ¹⁵N incorporated as ammonium was nearly 3-fold higher than acropetal translocation, whereas ¹⁵N translocation as nitrate and amino acids was smaller but equal in either direction. The estimated total nitrogen acquisition by C. prolifera was 689 μmol · m⁻² · h⁻¹, whereas the total nitrogen requirement for growth was 672 μmol · m⁻² · h⁻¹. The uptake of ammonium and amino acids by belowground parts accounted for the larger fraction of the total nitrogen acquisition of C. prolifera and is sufficient to satisfy the species nitrogen requirements for growth. This may be one reason explaining the fast spreading of the seaweed in the bare sediments of Ria Formosa where it does not have any macrophyte competitors and the concentration of nutrients is high.     

Effects of phosphorus on growth and competitive interactions of native and introduced species found in White Box woodlands

Abstract White Box (Eucalyptus albens Benth.) woodlands are among Australia's most endangered ecosystems and are threatened by exotic species invasion. There is evidence from other Australian communities that phosphorus enrichment can facilitate invasion, and differential growth of native and exotic species under increased phosphorus is a possible mechanism. Two glasshouse experiments were designed to test the following three questions relating to species responses to phosphorus: (i) do exotic and native species have different patterns of growth along a gradient of increasing phosphorus?; (ii) do exotic species have a greater competitive effect on native species than do conspecifics?; (iii) does phosphorus enrichment compound the competitive effect of exotic species on native species? Four native perennial species (Themeda australis (R. Br.) Staph., Bothriochloa macra (Steud.) S. T. Blake, Austrodanthonia racemosa (R. Br.) H. P. Linder and Eucalyptus albens) and two exotic annual species (Vulpia bromoides (L) Gray and Echium plantagineum L) were used. In the first experiment, plants were grown individually under six levels of soil phosphorus ranging from 0 to 60 p.p.m. In the second experiment, individuals of Eucalyptus albens and B. macra were grown alone, with a conspecific competitor, or with an exotic (V. bromoides or Echium plantagineum) competitor under low (10 p.p.m.) and high (100 p.p.m.) phosphorus. Both exotic species showed a greater positive response to increased phosphorus than the native species in experiment 1, and Eucalyptus albens seedlings grown with Echium plantagineum were significantly smaller than individuals grown alone or with Eucalyptus albens in experiment 2. There was no evidence that high phosphorus increased the competitive effect of the exotic species, but the combination of a strong positive response to phosphorus and a strong effect on growth of a native species indicates that phosphorus enrichment could favour exotic species in woodland remnants and that field studies testing the effect of phosphorus in a broader context would be appropriate.     

Induction of carotenoid pigments in callus cultures of Calendula officinalis L. in response to nitrogen and sucrose levels

In vitro carotenoid pigment production in callus cultures of Calendula officinalis L. was investigated using two basal media, semi-solid versus liquid media and varied concentrations of sucrose, ammonium, and nitrate nitrogen. Of the two explants that were evaluated, floret explants were best for callus induction using Murashige and Skoog (MS) medium supplemented with 2.0 mg l⁻¹ 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid under complete darkness. Carotenoid pigment induction was significantly augmented when the sucrose concentration was increased. Low sucrose concentrations in the culture medium deferred the onset of pigment induction and reduced the overall levels of carotenoid pigments produced. The highest amount of carotenoid pigments was observed when the callus was grown on the MS medium without ammonium nitrogen. The quantity of carotenoids was slightly elevated in cultures grown on semi-solid medium than those grown in liquid medium. In vitro carotenoid production was optimized by modifying the concentration of ammonium nitrogen to nitrate nitrogen in the culture medium and enhancing the sucrose concentration.     

Partitioning of inorganic nitrogen assimilation between the roots and shoots of cerrado and forest trees of contrasting plant communities of South East Brasil

Summary Woody plants growing in cerrado and forest communities of south-east Brasil were found to have low levels of nitrate reductase activity in their leaves suggesting that nitrate ions are not an important nitrogen source in these communities. Only in the leaves of species growing in areas of disturbance, such as gaps and forest margins, were high levels of nitrate reductase present. When pot-grown plants were supplied with nitrate, leaves and roots of almost all species responded by inducing increased levels of nitrate reductase. Pioneer or colonizing species exhibited highest levels of nitrate reductase and high shoot: root nitrate reductase activities. Glutamine synthetase, glutamate synthase and glutamate dehydrogenase were present in leaves and roots of the species examined.¹⁵N-labelled nitrate and ammonium were used to compare the assimilatory characteristics of two species:Enterolobium contortisiliquum, with a high capacity to reduce nitrate, andCalophyllum brasiliense, of low capacity. The rate of nitrate assimilation in the former was five times that of the latter. Both species had similar rates of ammonium assimilation. Results for eight species of contrasting habitats showed that leaf nitrogen content increased in parallel with xylem sap nitrogen concentrations, suggesting that the ability of the root system to acquire, assimilate or export nitrate determines shoot nitrogen status. These results emphasise the importance of nitrogen transport and metabolism in roots as determinants of whole plant nitrogen status.     

Waterlogging and fire impacts on nitrogen availability and utilization in a subtropical wet heathland (wallum)

Protein, amino acids and ammonium were the main forms of soluble soil nitrogen in the soil solution of a subtropical heathland (wallum). After fire, soil ammonium and nitrate increased 90- and 60-fold, respectively. Despite this increase in nitrate availability after fire, wallum species exhibited uniformly low nitrate reductase activities and low leaf and xylem nitrate. During waterlogging soil amino acids increased, particularly γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) which accounted for over 50% of amino nitrogen. Non-mycorrhizal wallum species were significantly (P < 0.05) ¹⁵N-enriched (0.3–4.3‰) compared to species with mycorrhizal associations (ericoid-type, ecto-, va-mycorrhizal) which were strongly depleted in ¹⁵N (-6.3 to -1.8‰). Lignotubers and roots had δ¹⁵N signatures similar to that of the leaves of respective species. The exceptions were fine roots of ecto-, ecto/va-, and ericoid type mycorrhizal species which were enriched in ¹⁵N (0.1–2.4‰). The 5¹⁵N signatures of δ¹⁵N_{total soil N} and δ¹⁵N_{soil NH4+} were in the range 3.7–4.5‰, whereas δ¹⁵N_{soil NO3?} was significantly (P < 0.05) more enriched in ¹⁵N (9.2–9.8‰). It is proposed that there is discrimination against ¹⁵N during transfer of nitrogen from fungal to plant partner. Roots of selected species incorporated nitrogen sources in the order of preference: ammonium > glycine > nitrate. The exception were proteoid roots of Hakea (Proteaceae) which incorporated equal amounts of glycine and ammonium.     

California native and exotic perennial grasses differ in their response to soil nitrogen,exotic annual grass density,and order of emergence

Early emergence of plant seedlings can offer strong competitive advantages over later-germinating neighbors through the preemption of limiting resources. This phenomenon may have contributed to the persistent dominance of European annual grasses over native perennial grasses in California grasslands, since the former species typically germinate earlier in the growing season than the latter and grow rapidly after establishing. Recently, European perennial grasses have been spreading into both non-native annual and native perennial coastal grass stands in California. These exotic perennials appear to be less affected by the priority effects arising from earlier germination by European annual grasses. In addition, these species interactions in California grasslands may be mediated by increasing anthropogenic or natural soil nitrogen inputs. We conducted a greenhouse experiment to test the effects of order of emergence and annual grass seedling density on native and exotic perennial grass seedling performance across different levels of nitrogen availability. We manipulated the order of emergence and density of an exotic annual grass (Bromus diandrus) grown with either Nassella pulchra (native perennial grass), Festuca rubra (native perennial grass), or Holcus lanatus (exotic perennial grass), with and without added nitrogen. Earlier B. diandrus emergence and higher B. diandrus density resulted in greater reduction in the aboveground productivity of the perennial grasses. However, B. diandrus suppressed both native perennials to a greater extent than it did H. lanatus. Nitrogen addition had no effect on the productivity of native perennials, but greatly increased the growth of the exotic perennial H. lanatus, grown with B. diandrus. These results suggest that the order of emergence of exotic annual versus native perennial grass seedlings could play an important role in the continued dominance of exotic annual grasses in California. The expansion of the exotic perennial grass H. lanatus in coastal California may be linked to its higher tolerance of earlier-emerging annual grasses and its ability to access soil resources amidst high densities of annual grasses.     

Comparison of damage to native and exotic tallgrass prairie plants by natural enemies

We surveyed the prevalence and amount of leaf damage related to herbivory and pathogens on 12 pairs of exotic (invasive and noninvasive) and ecologically similar native plant species in tallgrass prairie to examine whether patterns of damage match predictions from the enemy release hypothesis. We also assessed whether natural enemy impacts differed in response to key environmental factors in tallgrass prairie by surveying the prevalence of rust on the dominant C₄ grass, Andropogon gerardii, and its congeneric invasive exotic C₄ grass, A. bladhii, in response to fire and nitrogen fertilization treatments. Overall, we found that the native species sustain 56.4% more overall leaf damage and 83.6% more herbivore-related leaf damage when compared to the exotic species. Moreover, we found that the invasive exotic species sustained less damage from enemies relative to their corresponding native species than the noninvasive exotic species. Finally, we found that burning and nitrogen fertilization both significantly increased the prevalence of rust fungi in the native grass, while rust fungi rarely occurred on the exotic grass. These results indicate that reduced damage from enemies may in part explain the successful naturalization of exotic species and the spread of invasive exotic species in tallgrass prairie.