Associations between symptoms of irritable colon and psychological and social conditions and lifestyle.

In a survey of risk factors for coronary heart disease 14 102 middle aged men and women answered a questionnaire on lifestyle, diet, and health, including symptoms of functional abdominal disorders. The overall prevalence of reports of one or both of the abdominal symptoms of "bloating and rumbling" or "cramping abdominal pain" was 28% in men and 35% in women. Only a weak negative association between age and prevalence of reported pain was found in both sexes. Women reported abdominal symptoms, especially cramping abdominal pain, significantly more commonly than men. In a multiple regression analysis abdominal symptoms were much more strongly associated with symptoms of mental stress such as depression, sleeping difficulties, problems of coping, and the use of analgesics than with lifestyle, dietary, and social variables together. The association was stronger in subjects reporting both symptoms. This strong and consistent association between functional abdominal disorders and psychological and social problems suggests that action other than prescribing drugs, diets, or radiography is required.     

Prevalence and risk factors of overweight and obesity in China

Objective: To examine the prevalence and risk factors of overweight and obesity in China. Research Methods and Procedures: A cross‐sectional survey was conducted in a nationally representative sample of 15,540 Chinese adults in 2000–2001. Body weight, height, and waist circumference were measured by trained observers. Overweight and obesity were defined according to the World Health Organization classification. Central obesity was defined according to guidelines of the International Diabetes Federation. Results: Mean BMI and waist circumference were 23.1 kg/m² and 79.6 cm, respectively, for men and 23.5 kg/m² and 77.2 cm, respectively, for women. The prevalences of overweight and obesity were 24.1% and 2.8% in men and 26.1% and 5.0% in women, respectively. The prevalence of central obesity was 16.1% in men and 37.6% in women. The prevalences of overweight, obesity, and central obesity were higher among residents in northern China compared with their counterparts in southern China and among those in urban areas compared with those in rural areas. Lifestyle factors were the most important risk factors to explain the differences in overweight and central obesity between northern and southern residents. Among women, lifestyle and diet were the most important risk factors to explain the differences between urban and rural residents, whereas socioeconomic status, lifestyle, and diet were all important among men. Discussion: Our study indicates that overweight and obesity have become important public health problems in China. Environmental risk factors may be the main reason for regional differences in the prevalence of overweight and obesity in China.     

Prevalence and associated factors of overweight and obesity in a Chinese rural population

Background: Overweight and obesity are now considered as a serious health problem, and a very important risk factor for many diseases. Objective: This study was designed to investigate the epidemiologic features of overweight and obesity among rural adults in China. Method and Procedures: A cross‐sectional survey was conducted during 2004–2005, using a multistage cluster sampling method to select a representative sample in Fuxin county, Liaoning province, China. A total of 29,970 adults, aged ≥35 years, were examined. At baseline, lifestyle and other factors were obtained. Overweight and obesity were defined according to the classification by the World Health Organization. Results: Overall, the prevalence of overweight was 18.6%; 15.1% in men and 22.1% in women. The prevalence of obesity was 1.7%; 1.2% in men and 2.2% in women. Multivariable logistic regression revealed certain risk factors of obesity that included being a women, Mongolian nationality and education status of over junior high school level. Moderate physical activity alone was shown as protective factor. Discussion: Although the prevalence of obesity was low, overweight was relatively high in the Chinese rural population, especially in adult women. Gender, diet, physical activity, education levels, and ethnicity were associated with the prevalence of these health conditions.     

Epidemiology of Overweight and Obesity in a Greek Adult Population: the ATTICA Study

Objective: To evaluate the status of overweight and obesity in a Greek random sample. Research Methods and Procedures: From 2001 to 2002, 1514 men (20 to 87 years old) and 1528 women (20 to 89 years old) were enrolled into the study. Among several sociodemographic, lifestyle, and bioclinical factors, anthropometric characteristics were also recorded. Overweight and obesity were defined according to the World Health Organization classification. Results: The prevalences of overweight and obesity were 53% and 20% in men and 31% and 15% in women (p for gender differences < 0.05). The age‐adjusted peak prevalence of obesity was observed in men older than 40 years old and women between 50 and 59 years old (Bonferonni α < 0.001). Central obesity prevailed in 36% of men and 43% of women (p for gender differences < 0.001). Obesity varied from 10% in rural to 25% in urban areas, but this difference was explained mainly by differences in occupational status (p = 0.9). Moreover, obese and overweight participants were older, less educated, more frequently sedentary, consumed higher quantities of alcoholic beverages, and were devoted to an unhealthier diet as compared with those of normal weight (all p < 0.05). A positive association was also observed between BMI and diastolic and systolic blood pressures, total cholesterol, triglycerides, and glucose levels (all p < 0.001). Discussion: Overweight and obesity seem to be a great health problem in the Greek population, especially in middle‐aged and older adults. Unfavorable lifestyle habits, low education, and the classical cardiovascular risk factors were associated with the prevalence of these health conditions.     

Blood pressure in a national birth cohort at the age of 36 related to social and familial factors,smoking, and body mass.

Blood pressure was measured in a birth cohort of 5362 subjects at the age of 36. The prevalence of hypertension in men (blood pressure greater than 140/90 mm Hg) was almost twice that in women, although women received treatment more often. Deaths of fathers of subjects from hypertensive and ischaemic heart disease were associated with significantly higher mean systolic and diastolic pressures in both sexes. Cigarette smoking was not strongly associated with blood pressure in men and not associated at all in women. Of the social factors, low social class of family of origin was associated with high blood pressure in both sexes; but the strongest association was with current body mass, and birth weight also contributed. Differences in blood pressures between the sexes may have been related to protective biological factors, such as endogenous sex hormones, in women and also to differences in types of employment, smoking habits, and body mass. Differences in blood pressures related to the social class of family of origin may reflect long term influences of class differences on diet, exercise, and educational achievement. The importance of measuring secular trends in obesity and blood pressures is emphasised.     

The changing pattern of cardiovascular risk factors: the CroHort study

Croatia has a long tradition of non-communicable disease prevention, but also obstacles to the implementation of preventive programs related to the general attenuation of public health and primary health care sector. The aim of this study was to determine trends in behavioral and biomedical risk factors and evaluate primary non-communicable disease and cardiovascular prevention. Physical inactivity was a leading risk factor with increasing trend and prevalence of 33.9% and 38.9% in men and women in 2008. In 2008, obesity was present in 26.1% and 34.1%, and hypertension in 65.8% and 59.7% of men and women. During the follow-up only smoking and alcohol consumption in men decreased significantly, while alcohol consumption and obesity in women, and hypertension in both sexes significantly increased. In the present situation, with the existing trends and environment it will not be possible to stop negative trends. Revitalization of public health activities and primary health care is essential.     

Serum Hepatic Enzyme Activity and Alcohol Drinking Status in Relation to the Prevalence of Metabolic Syndrome in the General Japanese Population

Background

Studies on the combined associations of elevated serum hepatic enzyme activity and alcohol drinking with metabolic syndrome are rare. Our objectives were to evaluate the associations of elevated serum hepatic enzyme activity with the prevalence of metabolic syndrome in the general Japanese population and whether alcohol drinking had a modifying effect on these associations.

Methods

We conducted a cross-sectional study with 1,027 men and 1,152 women throughout Japan during 2002–2010. Biochemical factors including alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and gamma-glutamyl transferase (GGT) were determined in overnight fasting blood, and a survey on lifestyle was conducted by questionnaire. Serum ALT and GGT levels were divided into tertiles in men and women, and their associations with the prevalence of metabolic syndrome were evaluated by logistic regressions.

Results

Elevated serum ALT and GGT, even within the reference range, were independently associated with increased metabolic syndrome prevalence and were associated with most of its components in both sexes, except for the association between GGT and low high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol in men. Stratified analyses by alcohol drinking status revealed that within the same tertile category of serum ALT and GGT, subjects classified as alcohol abstainers showed higher adjusted odds ratios for metabolic syndrome prevalence than those classified as regular alcohol drinkers in both sexes. The interaction effects of serum GGT with alcohol drinking status on metabolic syndrome prevalence were significant in both sexes.

Conclusions

These results suggest that elevated serum ALT and GGT, even within the reference range, are independently associated with increased metabolic syndrome prevalence, especially in alcohol abstainers, in Japanese men and women.     

Psychological factors and self-reports of muscle pain

Factorial analyses of subjectively felt health complaints in a population of 400 males and 74 females revealed nine orthogonal (independent) factors. One factor (Factor 4) involved pain in the neck, pain in the back, pain in arms and shoulders, and migraine. This type of complaint did not relate to anxiety and depression. The prevalence of muscle pains varied between the sexes, and the types of occupations. Shiftwork was also important. 54% of the women and 40% of the men in the total population had some forms of muscle pain, but only 8% of the women and 3% of the men felt this to be a really serious problem. Psychological factors explained only moderate amounts of variance of muscle pain when the population was taken as a whole. However, within each type of occupation, psychological factors explained a considerable amount of the variance.     

Are chronic diseases related to height? Results from the Portuguese National Health Interview Survey

This paper analyze the association between height and chronic diseases in Portugal and the extent to which this relationship is mediated by education. The sample upon which the analysis is based comprised those participants in the 2005/2006 Portuguese National Health Interview Survey (n = 28,433) aged 25–79. Logistic regressions measured the association of height with ten chronic diseases, adjusting for age, lifestyle, education, and other socioeconomic factors. Among women, an additional centimeter in stature significantly decreased the prevalence of asthma, chronic pain, and acute cardiac disease, by 0.057, 0.221, and 0.033 percentage points, respectively. Also, mental disorders were significantly less prevalent in the last quartile of height. Among men, an additional centimeter in height was associated with a 0.074 lower prevalence of asthma, and men in the last quartile of height were significantly less at risk of acute cardiovascular disease. There was no significant association between height and the risk of diabetes, high blood pressure, cancer, and pulmonary diseases. As for the impact of education, women with a tertiary level were on average 5.3 cm taller than those with no schooling; among men, the difference was almost 9 cm. Adjusting for education reduced the height-related excess risk of ill health by 36% on average among men, and by 7% among women. The analysis indicates that there is a significant association of height with several chronic conditions, and that education plays a mediating role in the height–health connection. By emphasizing the role of height and education as determinants of chronic conditions, this paper also highlights the role of conditions related to childhood health and socioeconomic background.     

The emergence of obesity among indigenous Siberians

Once considered a disease of affluence and confined to industrialized nations, obesity is currently emerging as a major health concern in nearly every country in the world. Available data suggest that the prevalence rate of obesity has reached unprecedented levels in most developing countries, and is increasing at a rate that far outpaces that of developed nations. This increase in obesity has also been documented among North American circumpolar populations and is associated with lifestyle changes related to economic development. While obesity has not been well studied among indigenous Siberians, recent anthropological studies indicate that obesity and its associated comorbidities are important health problems.The present study examines recent adult body composition data from four indigenous Siberian populations (Evenki, Ket, Buriat, and Yakut) with two main objectives: 1) to determine the prevalence of overweight and obesity among these groups, and 2) to assess the influence of lifestyle and socioeconomic factors on the development of excess body fat. The results of this study indicate that obesity has emerged as an important health issue among indigenous Siberians, and especially for women, whose obesity rates are considerably higher than those of men (12% vs. 7%). The present study investigated the association between lifestyle and body composition among the Yakut, and documented substantial sex differences in lifestyle correlates of obesity. Yakut men with higher incomes and who owned more luxury consumer goods were more likely to have excess body fat while, among Yakut women, affluence was not strongly associated with overweight and obesity.     

Association between Lifestyle Factors and Quality-Adjusted Life Years in the EPIC-NL Cohort

The aim of our study was to relate four modifiable lifestyle factors (smoking status, body mass index, physical activity and diet) to health expectancy, using quality-adjusted life years (QALYs) in a prospective cohort study. Data of the prospective EPIC-NL study were used, including 33,066 healthy men and women aged 20–70 years at baseline (1993–7), followed until 31-12-2007 for occurrence of disease and death. Smoking status, body mass index, physical activity and adherence to a Mediterranean-style diet (excluding alcohol) were investigated separately and combined into a healthy lifestyle score, ranging from 0 to 4. QALYs were used as summary measure of healthy life expectancy, combining a person''s life expectancy with a weight for quality of life when having a chronic disease. For lifestyle factors analyzed separately the number of years living longer in good health varied from 0.12 year to 0.84 year, after adjusting for covariates. A combination of the four lifestyle factors was positively associated with higher QALYs (P-trend <0.0001). A healthy lifestyle score of 4 compared to a score of 0 was associated with almost a 2 years longer life in good health (1.75 QALYs [95% CI 1.37, 2.14]).     

Prevalence of Obesity and Associated Risk Factors in a Turkish Population (Trabzon City,Turkey)

Objective: To estimate the prevalence of overweight and obesity (general and central) in the Trabzon Region and its associations with demographic factors (age, sex, marital status, reproductive history in women, and level of education), socioeconomic factors (household income and occupation), family history of selected medical conditions (diabetes, hypertension, and obesity), lifestyle factors (smoking habits, physical activity, and alcohol consumption), and hypertension in the adult population. Research Methods and Procedures: A sample of households was systematically selected from the central province of Trabzon and its five towns, namely, Sürmene, Vakfikebir, Maçka, Hayrat, and Tonya. A total of 5016 subjects (2728 women and 2288 men) were included in the study. Individuals more than 20 years old were selected from their family health cards. Demographic factors, socioeconomic factors, family history of selected medical conditions, and lifestyle factors were obtained for all participants. Systolic blood pressure and diastolic blood pressure levels were measured for all subjects. Study procedures were carried out in the local health centers in each town over an 8‐month period. Obesity was defined as BMI ≥ 30 kg/m² and overweight as BMI = 25.0 to 29.9 kg/m². Results: The prevalence of obesity was 23.5%: 29.4% in women and 16.5% in men. The combined prevalence of both overweight and obesity was 60.3%. The prevalence of abdominal obesity was 29.4%: 38.9% among women and 18.1% among men. The prevalence of obesity increased with age, being highest in the 60‐ to 69‐year‐old age group (40.8%) but lower again in the 70+ age group. Obesity was associated positively with marital status, parity, cessation of cigarette smoking, alcohol consumption, and household income and inversely with level of education, cigarette use, and physical activity. Also, obesity was associated positively with hypertension. Discussion: In the Trabzon Region, 60.3% of the adult population presents with some excess weight. Obesity is a major public health problem that requires generalized interventions to prevent it among the adult population.     

Self-Reported Substantial 1-Year Weight Change Among Men and Women in the United States

Population-based data have not been readily available on relatively short-term changes in weight. Therefore, we sought to determine the nature of self-reported substantial (> 10%) weight change over one year in a representative sample of the US population which participated in the 1989 National Health Interview Survey (NHIS). Across all ages, a larger proportion of women than men reported both weight loss as well as weight gain of any amount (18.9% vs. 16.1% for weight loss and 20.0% vs. 16.1% for weight gain). In sex-specific logistic regression analyses, significant risk factors common to both sexes for substantial weight loss included divorced/separated marital status, smoking, increased number of blood pressure checks, increased BMI (body mass index) and increased number of bed days. Black race reduced the risk of weight loss for both men and women. Sex-specific risk factors for weight loss in men only were widowhood or never married marital status, while increasing age was a protective factor in women only. Concerning weight gain > 10% over the past year, increased number of blood pressure checks and having one or more diabetic parents were significant risk factors among both men and women; while never being married, increased age, BMI, and education exerted a protective effect in both sexes. For women only, risk factors for weight gain included black race, increased number of contacts with a health professional, and being unemployed. Intention to lose weight was associated with both weight gain and weight loss in both sexes, although it did not serve as a confounder in any of these relationships. A greater likelihood of substantial weight loss among women relative to men was diminished for persons with higher BMI, higher number of blood pressure checks, being widowed, divorced or separated, and intention to lose weight. A greater likelihood of substantial weight gain among women relative to men was diminished for persons with low BMI. The results of this cross-sectional study of weight change, involving a one-year follow-up period, generally correspond with the results obtained by longitudinal studies involving a longer follow-up.     

Gender differences in predictors of body weight and body weight change in healthy adults

Background: Overweight and obesity are important predictors of a wide variety of health problems. Analysis of naturally occurring changes in body weight can provide valuable insights in improving our understanding of the influence of demographic, lifestyle, and psychosocial factors on weight gain in middle‐age adults. Objective: To identify gender‐specific predictors of body weight using cross‐sectional and longitudinal analyses. Methods and Procedures: Anthropometric, lifestyle and psychosocial factors were measured at baseline and then quarterly for 1 year in 572 healthy adult volunteers from Central Massachusetts who were recruited between 1994 and 1998. Linear mixed models were used to analyze the relationship between body weight and potential predictors, including demographic (e.g., age, educational level), lifestyle (e.g., diet, physical activity, smoking), and psychosocial (e.g., anxiety, depression) factors. Results: Over the 1‐year study period, on average, men gained 0.3 kg and women lost 0.2 kg. Predictors of lower body weight at baseline in both men and women included current cigarette smoking, greater leisure‐time physical activity, and lower depression and anxiety scores. Lower body weights were associated with a lower percentage of caloric intake from protein and greater occupational physical activity levels only among men; and with higher education level only among women. Longitudinal predictors of 1‐year weight gain among women included increased total caloric intake and decreased leisure‐time physical activity, and among men, greater anxiety scores. Discussion: Demographic, lifestyle and psychosocial factors are independently related to naturally occurring changes in body weight and have marked differential gender effects. These effects should be taken into consideration when designing interventions for weight‐loss and maintenance at the individual and population levels.     

Comparison of Apolipoprotein (apoB/apoA-I) and Lipoprotein (Total Cholesterol/HDL) Ratio Determinants. Focus on Obesity, Diet and Alcohol Intake

The ratio between apolipoprotein B and apolipoprotein A-I (apoB/apoA-I) has been suggested to be a powerful and more accurate predictor of future cardiovascular disease risk than total cholesterol and HDL cholesterol. Since diet and lifestyle can directly influence dyslipidemia, it is of interest to identify modifiable factors that are associated with high levels of the apolipoprotein ratio and if they can have a different association with a more traditional indicator of cardiovascular risk such as total cholesterol/HDL. The relationship between obesity and dyslipidemia is established and it is of interest to determine which factors can modify this association. This study investigated the cross-sectional association of obesity, diet and lifestyle factors with apoB/apoA-I and total cholesterol/HDL respectively, in a Swedish population of 2,907 subjects (1,537 women) as part of the INTERGENE study. The apolipoprotein and lipoprotein ratios were highly correlated, particularly in women, and obesity was strongly associated with both. Additionally, age, cigarette smoking and alcohol intake were important determinants of these ratios. Alcohol was the only dietary factor that appreciably attenuated the association between obesity and each of the ratios, with a stronger attenuation in women. Other dietary intake and lifestyle-related factors such as smoking status and physical activity had a lower effect on this association. Because the apolipoprotein and lipoprotein ratios share similar diet and lifestyle determinants as well as being highly correlated, we conclude that either of these ratios may be a sufficient indicator of dyslipidemia.     

Diet quality of middle age and older women from Primorsko-Goranska County evaluated by healthy eating index and association with body mass index

Accorded dietary habits provide adequate nutrient intakes, especially important for quality aging. Adequate nutrition for older persons has vital influence on maintaining good health and social functioning. Therefore, using simple tool for evaluation of diet of older population in relation to overweight and obesity is of public health importance. Among many factor that influence quality of aging has obesity, where in Croatia the prevalence of obesity is greater in older women than men. Our aim was to evaluate diet quality of middle age and older women from Primorsko-Goranska County by Healthy Eating Index (HEI) and to see the association of HEI to overweight and obesity. Diet quality of 124 women with average age 59.91 +/- 5.31 years was graded with 10 component HEI score, ranging from 0 to 100, where HEI score less than 51 implies "poor" diet. Overweight and obesity was classified according to WHO classification. The majority of women had diet that "needs improvement" (66.1%), and only 3.2% had "good" diet. Older women had better HEI score than middle-aged women, while overweight was statistically significant positively related to better HEI score (P = 0.26, p = 0.048). Older women better scored for meat, dairy, cholesterol and dietary variety. "Poor" diet mostly had women with normal weight and middle-aged. Age did not influenced overall HEI score, neither its components. Obese women had lower achievements for almost all recommended HEI components. Women having "poor" diet quality could raise a chance for overweight and obesity for almost two times ([OR] = 1.67, 95% [CI] = 1.072-2.59, p = 0.023; [OR] = 1.51, 95% [CI] = 1.08-2.10, p = 0.015, respectively). The provided results showed that with age, women tended to have better diet. These could be because of that with aging are higher disease incidences that essentially need diet improvements; so older women tended to improve their diet to reduce disease discomforts. Being obese influenced the diet quality of our sample of women, therefore, for quality aging, the importance of public health nutrition programs are strongly needed. HEI score is a good assessment for diet quality, but further investigation of influence on other sociodemographic and health characteristics is required.     

Smoking prevalence and associated risk factors in Canadian adults. Canadian Heart Health Surveys Research Group.

OBJECTIVE: To describe the prevalence and patterns of smoking among Canadian adults, the relation of smoking to other cardiovascular disease risk factors and the awareness of the causes of heart disease. DESIGN: Population-based cross-sectional surveys. SETTING: Nine Canadian provinces, from 1986 to 1990. PARTICIPANTS: A probability sample of 26,293 men and women aged 18 to 74 was selected from the health insurance registries in each province. Of these, 20,585 completed a questionnaire on smoking habits during a home interview. MAIN RESULTS: Approximately 29% of the Canadian population 18 years of age and over were regular cigarette smokers, and over 13% of regular smokers smoked more than 25 cigarettes per day. The proportion of women who had never smoked was higher (37%) than men (24%), except for young women aged 18 to 24. For all participants, there was a lower prevalence of high blood pressure and overweight among smokers than non-smokers. The prevalence of sedentary lifestyle, diabetes and elevated blood cholesterol was positively associated with smoking. The proportion of subjects who identified smoking as a cause of heart disease was higher among smokers, and over 90% believe that heart disease is preventable. CONCLUSION: Because smoking is positively associated with other cardiovascular risk factors, multifactorial and comprehensive approaches are needed in the implementation of cardiovascular disease prevention programs. Knowledge regarding the heart health hazards of smoking is high even among smokers. Motivational approaches that go beyond health risk messages are needed in cessation programs.     

Educational status,coronary heart disease,and coronary risk factor prevalence in a rural population of India.

OBJECTIVE--To define the association between educational level and prevalence of coronary heart disease and coronary risk factors in India. DESIGN--Total community cross sectional survey with a doctor administered questionnaire, physical examination, and electrocardiography. SETTING--A cluster of three villages in rural Rajasthan, western India. SUBJECTS--3148 residents aged over 20 (1982 men, 1166 women) divided into various groups according to years of formal schooling. RESULTS--Illiteracy and low educational levels were associated with less prestigious occupations (agricultural and farm labouring) and inferior housing. There was an inverse correlation of educational level with age (rank correlation: mean -0.45, women -0.49). The prevalence of coronary heart disease (diagnosed by electrocardiography) was significantly higher among uneducated and less educated people and showed an inverse relation with education in both sexes. Among uneducated and less educated people there was a higher prevalence of the coronary risk factors smoking and hypertension. Educational level showed a significant inverse correlation with systolic and diastolic blood pressure. Logistic regression analysis with adjustment for age showed that educational level had an inverse relation with prevalence of electrocardiographically diagnosed coronary heart disease (odds ratio: men 0.82, women 0.53), hypertension (men 0.88, women 0.56), and smoking (men 0.73, women 0.65) but not with hypercholesterolaemia and obesity. The inverse relation of coronary heart disease with educational level abated after adjustment for smoking, physical activity, body mass index, and blood pressure (odds ratio: men 0.98, women 0.78). CONCLUSION--Uneducated and less educated people in rural India have a higher prevalence of coronary heart disease and of the coronary risk factors smoking and hypertension.     

Plasma lipids and lipoproteins and the prevalence of risk for coronary heart disease in Canadian adults. Canadian Heart Health Surveys Research Group.

OBJECTIVE: To report population reference values for blood lipids, to determine the prevalence of lipid risk factors and to assess their association with other risk factors. DESIGN: Population-based cross-sectional surveys. Survey participants were interviewed at home and provided a blood sample at a clinic. All blood lipid analyses were done in the Lipid Research Laboratory, University of Toronto. The laboratory is standardized in the National Heart, Lung Blood Institute-Centres for Disease Control Standardization Program. SETTING: Nine Canadian provinces, from 1986 to 1990. PARTICIPANTS: A probability sample of 26,293 men and women aged 18 to 74 was selected from the health insurance registers for each province. Blood samples were obtained from 16,924 participants who had fasted 8 hours or more. OUTCOME MEASURES: Concentration of total plasma cholesterol, triglycerides and high density lipoprotein (HDL) and low density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol in blood samples from fasting participants. MAIN RESULTS: Of the study population, 46% had total plasma cholesterol levels above 5.2 mmol/L, 15% had LDL-cholesterol levels above 4.1 mmol/L, 15% had triglyceride levels above 2.3 mmol/L and 8% had HDL-cholesterol levels below 0.9 mmol/L. Total plasma cholesterol, LDL-cholesterol and triglyceride levels rose with age in men to a maximum in the 45-54 age group; in women there was little change with age up to ages 45 to 54, at which time the level of each of these lipids increased appreciably. The age-standardized prevalence of obesity was positively associated with elevation of total plasma cholesterol. CONCLUSION: The results suggest the need for a multifactorial approach in health promotion efforts to lower blood cholesterol levels and reduce other risk factors in the population. A considerable number of adults were found to be at risk at all ages in both sexes. In the short term, men aged 34 and older and women aged 45 and older might benefit most from prevention programs.     

The prospective evaluation of the osteoporotic vertebral fractures incidence in a random population sample

Introduction Osteoporotic vertebral fractures are mostly incidental but in some patients may lead to clinical symptoms, characteristic deformations of the vertebral column and increase total mortality. The aim of the study was to evaluate the prevalence of osteoporotic vertebral fractures and risk factors for osteoporosis in a random sample of Szczecin inhabitants aged over 50 in the relation to the whole European population examined in the frame of EVOS (European Vertebral Osteoporosis Study) and its prospective phase - EPOS (European Prospective Osteoporosis Study). At the baseline, 607 persons were studied, including 301 women and 306 men. Material and methods The questionnaire on the risk factors for osteoporosis and the spine X-rays analysed by morphometry, were taken in all subjects. The incidence of osteoporotic vertebral deformity in the studied population was similar in both sexes (12.6% women and 10,3% men) but in men aged 50-64 fracture incidence was significantly higher in comparison with women. The prevalence of new vertebral fractures examined after 4 years was higher in women than in men (9.1 vs 6.4/1000 persons years). Among the risk factors for osteoporosis, low physical activity and prolonged immobilization in women significantly influenced the incidence of vertebral deformities. Conclusions: 1) The study shows the high incidence of risk factors and osteoporotic vertebral deformities in the population of Szczecin inhabitants aged over 50. 2) Visual assessment only with a combination with morphometry is an optimal tool for detection of incident vertebral fractures.