The politics of human heredity in the USSR, 1920-1940

After the Bolshevik revolution of 1917, Iurii Filipchenko (in Petrograd) and Nikolai Koltsov (in Moscow) created centers of genetic research where eugenics prospered as a socially relevant part of the new "experimental" biology. The Russian Eugenics Society, established in 1920, was dominated by research-oriented professionals. However, Bolshevik activists in the movement tried to translate eugenics into social policies (among them, sterilization) and in 1929, Marxist geneticist Alexander Serebrovsky was stimulated by the forthcoming Five-Year Plan to urge a massive eugenic program of human artificial insemination. With the advent of Stalinism, such attempts to "biologize" social phenomena became ideologically untenable and the society was abolished in 1930. Three years later, however, a number of eugenicists reassembled in the world's first institute of medical genetics, created by Bolshevik physician Solomon Levit after this return from a postdoctoral year in Texas with H.J. Muller. Muller himself moved to the Soviet Union in 1933, where he agitated for eugenics and wrote Stalin in 1936 to urge an artificial insemination program. Shortly thereafter, Muller left Russia, several of his colleagues were shot, and the Institute of Medical Genetics was disbanded. During the next three decades, Lysenkoists regularly invoked the Soviet eugenic legacy to claim that genetics itself was fascist.     

Beyond eugenics: the forgotten scandal of hybridizing humans and apes

This paper examines the available evidence on one of the most radical ideas in the history of eugenics and utopianism. In the mid-1920s, the zoology professor Ilia Ivanov submitted to the Soviet government a project for hybridizing humans and apes by means of artificial insemination. He received substantial financing and organized expeditions to Africa to catch apes for his experiments. His project caused an international sensation. The American Association for the Advancement of Atheism announced its fund-raising campaign to support Ivanov's project but gave it a scandalously racist interpretation. Ivanov's own motivation remained unclear, as did the motivation of those in the Bolshevik government who supported Ivanov until his arrest in 1930. This paper discusses three hypothetical reasons for Ivanov's adventure: first, hybridization between humans and apes, should it be successful, would support the atheist propaganda of the Bolsheviks; second, regardless of the success of hybridization, Ivanov would catch and bring to Russia apes, which were necessary for the rejuvenation programs that were fashionable among the Bolshevik elite; and third, hybridization, should it be successful, would pave the way to the New Socialist Man whose 'construction by scientific means' was the official purpose of the Bolsheviks. Ivanov's ideas were arguably important for the American proponent of reform eugenics, Herman Muller, and for the Soviet anthropologist Boris Porshnev.     

Inception and Five-year Run of a Semen Cryobank. Clinical and Behavioral Aspects

Recent developments in infertility treatment, as well as medical and ethical concern to preserve the fertilizing ability of male subjects potentially at risk, led to the inception of a sperm cryobank in our medical center in 1996. Up to the end of the year 2000, 64 young men displaying higher semen values than generally required were accepted as donors, while 305 married (mean age 32.5, range 22–54) and 381 single women (mean age 41.2, range 27–50) were treated by artificial insemination donor (AID), resulting in 251 conceptions. Besides, 437 male subjects aged 15–61 requested sperm cryopreservation. Methodological considerations about sperm cryopreservation, and behavioral implications therefrom, are evaluated.     

Current topics in artificial insemination of sheep

There have been developments in several aspects of artificial insemination (AI) in recent years, some of which have been directly responsible for proliferation of AI in the sheep-breeding industries of several countries. The most notable advances have probably been associated with the development of intrauterine insemination by laparoscopy. There is potential for refinement of some of the related techniques, particularly in the area of control of ovulation and definition of appropriate times and optimum doses of spermatozoa for insemination. It is unlikely that laparoscopic AI will be developed sufficiently that it will become readily affordable, and therefore widely practised, by commercial producers. Unfortunately, there has been little progress in the past few years in improvement of the methods of cryopreservation of ram semen. There is considerable potential for AI to have a significant impact on the genetic improvement of sheep, though this has yet to be evaluated in practice. However, if the full potential of AI in sheep is to be realized, it will likely only happen when methods of freezing semen are improved sufficiently that cervical or even vaginal insemination can be widely used with frozen-thawed semen, or when practicable methods of deep cervical or intrauterine insemination through the cervix are developed.     

Successful artificial insemination in the koala (Phascolarctos cinereus) using extended and extended-chilled semen collected by electroejaculation

Artificial insemination in the koala using chilled, electroejaculated semen provides for a marked improvement in the reproductive and genetic management of captive koala colonies in Australia and internationally, and makes available the option of using semen collected from wild populations to expand restricted gene pools. Dilution of koala semen for artificial insemination is complicated because koalas are induced ovulators, and it is thought that ovulating factors are present in the semen, so that semen extension for preservation purposes might be anticipated to result in a failure to induce ovulation. The first two experiments of this study were designed to determine whether artificial insemination using undiluted, extended, and extended-chilled semen collected by electroejaculation was capable of inducing a luteal phase and/or the production of pouch young. In Experiment 1, 1 ml undiluted electroejaculated semen, 2 ml diluted (1:1) semen, and 1 ml diluted (1:1) semen resulted in seven of nine, six of nine, and six of nine koalas showing a luteal phase, respectively; four pouch young were produced in each treatment. A second artificial insemination experiment was conducted in which 2 ml diluted (1:1) semen was administered in three groups of nine koalas. The first group received semen that had been collected and diluted immediately without chilling, the second group was deposited with semen stored chilled for 24 h, and the final group received semen that had been chilled for 72 h. In the first group, five females had a luteal phase, but none became pregnant. In group 2, two of the five females that had a luteal phase gave birth, whereas in group 3, four of the six females that had a luteal phase produced pouch young. In addition, experiment 3 was conducted to determine whether it was possible to produce pouch young by naturally mating koalas that were in the latter stages of their behavioral estrus; this information is important to the logistics of transporting koala semen for artificial insemination by establishing the maximum time frame in which females might be expected to shed a fertile oocyte. Of the 12 females mated on Day 8 of estrus, 6 gave birth, whereas only 3 of the 10 females naturally mated on Day 10 of estrus produced pouch young. The majority of females (21 of 22) in experiment 3 showed evidence of a luteal phase. Together, these experiments have shown that it is possible to use undiluted, extended, or extended-chilled semen to produce koala offspring up to Day 8 of estrus at conception rates similar to those achieved following natural mating. These findings represent a significant advancement in the use of reproductive technology in marsupials and provide the basis for the shipment of koala semen over long distances. The pouch young produced in this study represent the first marsupials born following artificial insemination of extended-chilled semen and bring the total number of koalas produced by artificial insemination to 31.     

Great expectations--German debates about artificial insemination in humans around 1912

In May 1912, reports on successful attempts at artificial insemination hit the German papers. Over the following months, the topic was taken up in medical lectures, in the debates of medical associations, and in medical journals. The technique--which had not much changed since the days of James Marion Sims--apparently triggered the imagination of scientists, medical doctors, journalists and authors. That artificial insemination met such interest, however, was not primarily due to its medical usefulness or proven success. Given that insemination with donor sperm was out of the question for most doctors and that ideas about the fertile period within the menstrual cycle were erroneous, contemporary attempts at insemination in humans hardly ever worked. Public interest in this topic rather reflects the desires and expectations which contemporaries associated with artificial insemination and with modern, scientific medicine. What appears to be a comparatively straight forward, low-tech operation today was imagined as a way or creating life artificially. Thus the topic was able to mobilise fears and expectations. The debate not only reflected contemporary beliefs about the possibilities and dangers of modern medicine, it also addressed the meaning of reproduction and infertility and the future of gender relations.     

Donor Insemination: Eugenic and Feminist Implications

One concern regarding developments in genetics is that, when techniques such as genetic engineering become safe and affordable, people will use them for positive eugenics: to "improve" their offspring by enpowering them with exceptional qualities. Another is whether new reproductive technologies are being used to improve the condition of women or as the tools of a patriarchal system that appropriates female functions to itself and exploits women to further its own ends. Donor insemination is relevant to both of these issues. The degree to which people have used donor insemination in the past for positive eugenic purposes may give some insight into the likelihood of developing technologies being so used in the future. Donor insemination provides women with the opportunity to reproduce with only the most remote involvement of a man. To what degree do women take advantage of this to liberate themselves from male dominance? Through questionnaires and interviews, women who have used donor insemination disclosed their criteria for selecting sperm donors. The results are analyzed for the prevalence of positive eugenic criteria in the selection process and women's attitudes toward minimizing the male role in reproduction.     

Assisted reproductive technologies in the reproductive management of small ruminants

In modern agriculture, assisted reproductive technologies are being used for out of season oestrus induction, enhancement of reproductive performance and genetic improvement. In addition, they can have substantial contribution in preservation of endangered species or breeds, as well as in eradication programs of various diseases. While their applications are widespread in cattle, in small ruminants it is almost restricted to artificial insemination. The main limitations of a wider application in small ruminants are the naturally occurring anoestrus period, the variability of response to superovulatory treatments, the fertilisation failure and the need of surgery for collection and transfer of gametes and embryos. Nonetheless, during the last 30 years, considerable progress has been made in sheep and goat embryo technologies, especially in the fields of oestrus synchronisation, superovulation and in vitro embryo production. This paper reviews the status of assisted reproductive technologies in sheep, analysing the prospects offered by recent advances in in vivo and in vitro embryo production from mature and juvenile lambs.     

Successful artificial insemination in the giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) at ueno zoo

Successful breeding of the giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) following artificial insemination was achieved at the Ueno Zoo in 2 consecutive years (1985 and 1986). The first cub, born in June 1985, unfortunately died 43 hours after birth from being crushed by the mother panda; the second cub, born in June 1986, has been growing in good health. Electroejaculation and artificial insemination procedures were performed after immobilization with diazepam (0.1 mg/kg) and ketamine HCL (4.0–5.0 mg/kg). Semen of the male panda was collected by electroejaculation using a rectal probe with a diameter of 2.0 cm and with eight rings as electrodes. Stimulation of the male was given with 3 V (30–40 mA) over a 5-sec period with 5-sec intervals. The female panda exhibited estrus between late February and early March in 1985 and also between mid-january and early February 1986. Increased excretion of urinary total estrogen showed coincidentally at maximum behavioral estrus, and a gradual rise of pregnanediol level was followed by artificial insemination. The gestational length for the first pregnancy was 110 days and that of the second 121 days.     

Devant une azoospermie ou une oligozoospermie extrême: ICSI ou IAD?

Intra-cytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI) allows to obtain evolutive embryos even in case of extreme oligozoospermia: this technique must thereby be proposed to couples before considering artificial insemination with donor semen (AID). Azoospermia sets some specific problems, particularly in case of deep alteration of spermatogenesis except in rare seminiferous tubules. There is a high risk of ICSI failure because of absence of spermatozoa extracted from testicular biopsies. AID represents therefore a much less heavy solution. In every cases, the opinion of the couple is very important to take in account.     

Dose dependent effect of GnRH analogue on pregnancy rate of repeat breeder crossbred cows

The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of treating repeat breeder dairy crossbred cows with different doses of GnRH analogue through i.m. at the time of artificial insemination, on pregnancy rates from their first service after treatment and overall pregnancy rates. One hundred and thirty seven crossbred dairy cows with a history of repeat breeding and eligible after 6-8 infertile services but clinically free of diseases were selected for the study. The animals were randomly divided into three groups. Group 1 (n = 55) cows were treated intramuscularly with each 20 microg Buserelin-acetate (Receptal, Hoechst Roussel Vet GmbH) at the time of artificial insemination. Group 2 (n = 40) cows were treated intramuscularly with each 10 microg Buserelin-acetate at the time of artificial insemination. Group 3 (n = 42) cows were treated intramuscularly with saline as control at the time of artificial insemination. The first service pregnancy rates in Groups 1-3 were 45, 25 and 17%, respectively. Similarly, the overall conception rates in Groups 1-3 were 87, 58 and 48%, respectively. The results indicated that the pregnancy rate in crossbred cows could be improved by the GnRH treatment. The higher dose of GnRH significantly increased (P < 0.05) the first service as well as overall pregnancy rate in a dose dependent manner in repeat breeder crossbred cow bred previously 6-8 times unsuccessfully.     

Cell Membrane Diversity in Noncovalent Protein Transduction

Crossing of the plasma membrane for all macromolecules without energy, receptors or any artificial methods was thought to be difficult. Our previous studies demonstrated that arginine-rich intracellular delivery (AID) peptides are able to deliver macromolecules, such as proteins, RNAs and DNAs, into either animal or plant cells. Cellular internalization could be mediated by effective and nontoxic AID peptides in either a covalent or noncovalent protein transduction (NPT) manner. AID peptides were so versatile that the procedure seemed to replace the current artificial transfection methods. However, the utilization of AID peptides has been limited to animal or plant systems so far. None has proposed that AID peptides could work in other species. Here, we select some representative organisms to screen whether NPT mediated by AID peptides works in them. They include cyanobacteria, bacteria, archaea, algae, fungi and yeasts. The results reveal that not all living beings possess this capability of protein transduction. Interestingly, all species of prokaryotes tested, which were thought to be highly diverse from the animal and plant systems, appear to be capable of NPT. The mechanism of AID-mediated NPT in cyanobacteria is in a classical endocytosis- and energy-independent pathway and may involve macropinocytosis. In contrast, green algae and multicellular fungi of the eukaryotes are impermeable to protein passage. Our results bring an interesting clue to the reexamination of the phylogeny of both algae and fungi.     

The frequency of consanguineous matings due to multiple use of donors in artificial insemination.

The amount of inadvertent inbreeding as a result of donor anonymity in artificial insemination has been estimated. A child from a first-cousin mating or closer is expected approximately once every 41/2 years in the United States as a result of artificial insemination by donor. Since a child with unknown paternity seems less likely to mate with paternal relatives than is a child with known paternity, artificial insemination by donor may actually reduce the average inbreeding of the population. Nevertheless, to reduce recessive diseases, inbreeding should be kept to a minimum by limiting the number of children produced by a single donor. Formulas are presented for local risks of inbreeding based on the number of children per donor.     

Evaluation of early embryonic mortality in donor insemination by a mathematical model,globally and depending on semen quality

Stating the probability of pregnancy per cycle as P_oP_FP_v, the product of the probabilities of ovulation, fertilization, and egg viability, the model allows an estimate of P_F and P_oP_v for a series of cycles with known insemination timing. Such results obtained from a series of donor insemination (AID) compared with those generally admitted in natural reproduction suggest that the lower pregnancy rate in AID (all the lower when the postthaw motility is low) is owing to a lower egg viability. Since the abortion rate does not seem higher, there might be a sizable rate of very early embryonic deaths in AID perhaps even as early as nondeveloping eggs.     

北京动物园大熊猫繁殖记录

北京动物园在三十年中,共繁殖大熊猫28胎（其中双胎18次）,产仔46只,成活21只,成活率为45．65％,为大熊猫的迁地保护作出了杰出的贡献。1963年第一次在人工饲养下自然繁殖成功大熊猫“明明”;1978年第一次用人工授精方法繁殖成功大熊猫“元晶”;1980年第一次以纯超低温保存的大熊猫冷冻精液人工授精成功产下二仔;1987年第一次在人工饲养下繁殖出子三代;1990年第一次实现不同地理位置的大熊猫自然交配繁殖成功幼仔“亚庆”;1992年第一次繁殖成功大熊猫人工授精第三代幼仔“京京”;1992年第一次以人工授精繁殖长大的雄性大熊猫自然交配成功繁殖“永明”和“永亮”;1992～1993年第一次以人工哺育的方法使未食母乳的大熊猫幼仔“永亮”成活;1993年第一次达到1992年所产的3仔全部成活,成活率为100％。     

Multivariate analysis of factors associated with calving interval and calving rate in dairy cows

We collected data on reproductive events of cows (n = 2116) that included dates of calving, first service, last artificial insemination before pregnancy examination, pregnancy examination, abortion, diagnosis of cystic ovary, and treatment with prostaglandin. We used multivariate analysis to evaluate the relationship between the interval from insemination to pregnancy examination and the length of calving interval, adjusting for other factors affecting the calving interval. The effect of the interval from insemination to pregnancy examination on calving rate was estimated using logistic regression analysis. The calving interval was long for cows with a short interval from artificial insemination to first pregnancy examination, it was at a minimum at 55 d and increased thereafter. Other factors affecting the calving interval were cystic ovaries, prostaglandin treatment, abortion, number of artificial inseminations, and days to first service. The calving rate was low among cows with a short interval to pregnancy examination, reached a maximum at 48 d, and then declined. Other factors affecting the calving rate were abortion, number of artificial inseminations and whether the cow was bred by a clean-up bull.     

Pregnancy and the risk of autoimmune disease

Autoimmune diseases (AID) predominantly affect women of reproductive age. While basic molecular studies have implicated persisting fetal cells in the mother in some AID, supportive epidemiological evidence is limited. We investigated the effect of vaginal delivery, caesarean section (CS) and induced abortion on the risk of subsequent maternal AID. Using the Danish Civil Registration System (CRS) we identified women who were born between 1960 and1992. We performed data linkage between the CRS other Danish national registers to identify women who had a pregnancy and those who developed AID. Women were categorised into 4 groups; nulligravida (control group), women who had 1st child by vaginal delivery, whose 1st delivery was by CS and who had abortions. Log-linear Poisson regression with person-years was used for data analysis adjusting for several potential confounders. There were 1,035,639 women aged >14 years and 25,570 developed AID: 43.4% nulligravida, 44.3% had their first pregnancy delivered vaginally, 7.6% CS and 4.1% abortions. The risk of AID was significantly higher in the 1st year after vaginal delivery (RR = 1.1[1.0, 1.2]) and CS (RR = 1.3[1.1, 1.5]) but significantly lower in the 1st year following abortion (RR = 0.7[0.6, 0.9]). These results suggest an association between pregnancy and the risk of subsequent maternal AID. Increased risks of AID after CS may be explained by amplified fetal cell traffic at delivery, while decreased risks after abortion may be due to the transfer of more primitive fetal stem cells. The increased risk of AID in the first year after delivery may also be related to greater testing during pregnancy.     

First successful artificial insemination with frozen-thawed semen in rhinoceros

The first successful artificial insemination (AI) in a rhinoceros was reported in 2007 using fresh semen. Following that success, we decided to evaluate the possibility of using frozen-thawed semen for artificial insemination. Semen, collected from a 35-36 year old Southern white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum simum) in the UK was frozen using the directional freezing technique. This frozen semen was used in two intrauterine AI attempts on a 30 years old female rhinoceros in Hungary. The first attempt, conducted 30 days postpartum with an insemination dose of ∼135 × 10⁶ motile cells, failed. The second attempt, conducted two estrus cycles later with an insemination dose of ∼500 × 10⁶ motile cells, resulted in pregnancy and the birth of a healthy offspring. This represents the first successful AI using frozen-thawed semen in a rhinoceros, putting it among very few wildlife species in which AI with frozen-thawed semen resulted in a live birth. The incorporation of AI with frozen-thawed semen into the assisted reproduction toolbox opens the way to preserve and transport semen between distant individuals in captivity or between wild and captive populations, without the need to transport stressed or potentially disease carrying animals. In addition, cryopreserved spermatozoa, in combination with AI, are useful methods to extend the reproductive lifespan of individuals beyond their biological lifespan and an important tool for managing genetic diversity in these endangered mammals.