Universal PCR primers for detection of phytopathogenic Agrobacterium strains.

Two PCR primer pairs, based on the virD2 and ipt genes, detected a wide variety of pathogenic Agrobacterium strains. The endonuclease domain of VirD2 protein, which cleaves transferred DNA (T-DNA) border sequences, is highly conserved; primer oligonucleotides specific for the endonuclease portion of virD2 detected all pathogenic strains of Agrobacterium tested. PCR primers corresponding to conserved sequences in ipt, the T-DNA-borne cytokinin synthesis gene, detected only Agrobacterium tumefaciens and distinguished it from Agrobacterium rhizogenes. The virD2 and ipt primer pairs did not interfere with each other when included in the same PCR amplification, and this permitted simultaneous detection of both genes in a single reaction. One nonpathogenic Agrobacterium radiobacter strain contained virD2 but not ipt; we speculate that this strain arose from a pathogenic progenitor through a deletion in the T-DNA. The virD2 primer pair appears to be universal for all pathogenic Agrobacterium species; used together, the primer sets reported here should allow unambiguous identification of Ti plasmid DNA in bacteria isolated from soil and plants.     

PCR amplification and direct sequencing of gyrB genes with universal primers and their application to the detection and taxonomic analysis of Pseudomonas putida strains.

Degenerate PCR primers, UP-1 and UP-2r, for the amplification of DNA gyrase subunit B genes (gyrB) were designed by using consensus amino acid sequences of gyrases from Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas putida, and Bacillus subtilis. In addition to the degenerate sequences, these primers have sequences at the 5' end which allow direct sequencing of amplified PCR products. With these primers, DNA segments of the predicted size were amplified from a variety of gram-negative and gram-positive genera. The nucleotide sequences of the amplified gyrB DNA from three P. putida strains were determined directly from the amplified fragments. The base substitution frequency of gyrB between the strains of P. putida was much higher than that of the 16S rRNA gene. With a specific set of PCR primers, it was possible to amplify gyrB fragments selectively from P. putida or its subgroups. The direct sequencing method of gyrB developed in this study provides a rapid and convenient system for bacterial identification, taxonomic analysis, and monitoring of bacteria in the natural environment.     

Oligonucleotide primers for detection and amplification of the emoA gene encoding bacterial ethylenediaminetetraacetate monooxygenase

A system of primers was designed on the basis of analysis of nucleotide sequences of the emoA gene encoding ethylenediaminetetraacetate (EDTA) monooxygenase, which are deposited in GenBank. This system of primers makes it possible to obtain emoA gene fragments approximately 750 bp long for bacterial destructors of EDTA. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) of total DNA isolated from enrichment and pure cultures showed that this system can be effectively used for detecting the emoA gene in representatives of Alpha- and Gammaproteobacteria. Partial sequences of emoA genes of bacteria of the genera Chelativorans and Stenotrophomonas, which are able to degrade this pollutant, have been sequenced and deposited in GenBank.     

Microscale detection of specific bacterial DNA in soil with a magnetic capture-hybridization and PCR amplification assay.

A magnetic capture-hybridization PCR technique (MCH-PCR) was developed to eliminate the inhibitory effect of humic acids and other contaminants in PCRs targeting specific soil DNA. A single-stranded DNA probe, which was complementary to an internal part of the target gene, was used to coat magnetic beads. After hybridization in a suspension of soil DNA, magnetic extraction of the beads separated the hybrid DNA from all other soil DNA, humic acids, and other interfering soil components. The MCH was followed by PCR amplification of the specific target DNA. In barley rhizosphere soil, detection of a lux gene inserted in a Pseudomonas fluorescens strain could be demonstrated in nonsterile soil samples (0.5 mg). This corresponded to a detection of fewer than 40 bacterial cells per cm of barley root. The MCH-PCR technique greatly improves the current protocols for PCR detection of specific microorganisms or genes in soil because specific target DNA sequences from very small soil samples can be extracted and determined.     

Critical evaluation of two primers commonly used for amplification of bacterial 16S rRNA genes

rRNA-based studies, which have become the most common method for assessing microbial communities, rely upon faithful amplification of the corresponding genes from the original DNA sample. We report here an analysis and reevaluation of commonly used primers for amplifying the DNA between positions 27 and 1492 of bacterial 16S rRNA genes (numbered according to the Escherichia coli rRNA). We propose a formulation for a forward primer (27f) that includes three sequences not usually present. We compare our proposed formulation to two common alternatives by using linear amplification-providing an assessment that is independent of a reverse primer-and in combination with the 1492 reverse primer (1492r) under the PCR conditions appropriate for making community rRNA gene clone libraries. For analyses of DNA from human vaginal samples, our formulation was better at maintaining the original rRNA gene ratio of Lactobacillus spp. to Gardnerella spp., particularly under stringent amplification conditions. Because our 27f formulation remains relatively simple, having seven distinct primer sequences, there is minimal loss of overall amplification efficiency and specificity.     

PRISE2: Software for designing sequence-selective PCR primers and probes

Background

PRISE2 is a new software tool for designing sequence-selective PCR primers and probes. To achieve high level of selectivity, PRISE2 allows the user to specify a collection of target sequences that the primers are supposed to amplify, as well as non-target sequences that should not be amplified. The program emphasizes primer selectivity on the 3’ end, which is crucial for selective amplification of conserved sequences such as rRNA genes. In PRISE2, users can specify desired properties of primers, including length, GC content, and others. They can interactively manipulate the list of candidate primers, to choose primer pairs that are best suited for their needs. A similar process is used to add probes to selected primer pairs. More advanced features include, for example, the capability to define a custom mismatch penalty function. PRISE2 is equipped with a graphical, user-friendly interface, and it runs on Windows, Macintosh or Linux machines.

Results

PRISE2 has been tested on two very similar strains of the fungus Dactylella oviparasitica, and it was able to create highly selective primers and probes for each of them, demonstrating the ability to create useful sequence-selective assays.

Conclusions

PRISE2 is a user-friendly, interactive software package that can be used to design high-quality selective primers for PCR experiments. In addition to choosing primers, users have an option to add a probe to any selected primer pair, enabling design of Taqman and other primer-probe based assays. PRISE2 can also be used to design probes for FISH and other hybridization-based assays.     

System of oligonucleotide primers for detection and amplification of the emoA gene encoding bacterial ethylenediaminetetraacetate monooxygenase

A system of primers was designed on the basis of analysis of nucleotide sequences of the emoAgene encoding ethylenediaminetetraacetate (EDTA) monooxygenase, which are deposited in GenBank. This system of primers makes it possible to obtain emoA gene fragments approximately 750 bp long for bacterial destructors of EDTA. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) of total DNA isolated from enrichment and pure cultures showed that this system can be effectively used for detecting the emoAgene in representatives of Alpha- and Gammaproteobacteria. Partial sequences of emoA genes of bacteria of the genera Chelativorans and Stenotrophomonas, which are able to degrade this pollutant, have been sequenced and deposited in GenBank.     

Real-time PCR detection of Vibrio vulnificus in oysters: comparison of oligonucleotide primers and probes targeting vvhA

We compared three sets of oligonucleotide primers and two probes designed for Vibrio vulnificus hemolysin A gene (vvhA) for TaqMan-based real-time PCR method enabling specific detection of Vibrio vulnificus in oysters. Two of three sets of primers with a probe were specific for the detection of all 81 V. vulnificus isolates by TaqMan PCR. The 25 nonvibrio and 12 other vibrio isolates tested were negative. However, the third set of primers, F-vvh1059 and R-vvh1159, with the P-vvh1109 probe, although positive for all V. vulnificus isolates, also exhibited positive cycle threshold (C(T)) values for other Vibrio spp. Optimization of the TaqMan PCR assay using F-vvh785/R-vvh990 or F-vvh731/R-vvh1113 primers and the P-vvh874 probe detected 1 pg of purified DNA and 10(3) V. vulnificus CFU/ml in pure cultures. The enriched oyster tissue homogenate did not exhibit detectable inhibition to the TaqMan PCR amplification of vvhA. Detection of 3 x 10(3) CFU V. vulnificus, resulting from a 5-h enrichment of an initial inoculum of 1 CFU/g of oyster tissue homogenate, was achieved with F-vvh785/R-vvh990 or F-vvh731/R-vvh1113 primers and P-vvh875 probe. The application of the TaqMan PCR using these primers and probe, exhibited detection of V. vulnificus on 5-h-enriched natural oysters harvested from the Gulf of Mexico. Selection of appropriate primers and a probe on vvhA for TaqMan-PCR-based detection of V. vulnificus in post-harvest-treated oysters would help avoid false-positive results, thus ensuring a steady supply of safe oysters to consumers and reducing V. vulnificus-related illnesses and deaths.     

Multilocus markers for mouse genome analysis: PCR amplification based on single primers of arbitrary nucleotide sequence

Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) based on single primers of arbitrary nucleotide sequence provides a powerful marker system for genome analysis because each primer amplifies multiple products, and cloning, sequencing, and hybridization are not required. We have evaluated this typing system for the mouse by identifying optimal PCR conditions; characterizing effects of GC content, primer length, and multiplexed primers; demonstrating considerable variation among a panel of inbred strains; and establishing linkage for several products. Mg²⁺, primer, template, and annealing conditions were identified that optimized the number and resolution of amplified products. Primers with 40% GC content failed to amplify products readily, primers with 50% GC content resulted in reasonable amplification, and primers with 60% GC content gave the largest number of well-resolved products. Longer primers did not necessarily amplify more products than shorter primers of the same proportional GC content. Multiplexed primers yielded more products than either primer alone and usually revealed novel variants. A strain survey showed that most strains could be readily distinguished with a modest number of primers. Finally, linkage for seven products was established on five chromosomes. These characteristics establish single primer PCR as a powerful method for mouse genome analysis.     

Real-time reverse transcription PCR analysis of expression of atrazine catabolism genes in two bacterial strains isolated from soil

The level of expression of highly conserved, plasmid-borne, and widely dispersed atrazine catabolic genes (atz) was studied by RT-qPCR in two telluric atrazine-degrading microbes. RT-qPCR assays, based on the use of real-time PCR, were developed in order to quantify atzABCDEF mRNAs in Pseudomonas sp. ADP and atzABC mRNAs in Chelatobacter heintzii. atz gene expression was expressed as mRNA copy number per 10(6) 16S rRNA. In Pseudomonas sp. ADP, atz genes were basally expressed. It confirmed atrazine-degrading kinetics indicating that catabolic activity starts immediately after adding the herbicide. atz gene expression increased transitorily in response to atrazine treatment. This increase was only observed while low amount of atrazine remained in the medium. In C. heintzii, only atzA was basally expressed. atzA and atzB expression levels were similarly and significantly increased in response to atrazine treatment. atzC was not expressed even in the presence of high amounts of atrazine. This study showed that atz genes are basally expressed and up-regulated in response to atrazine treatment. atz gene expression patterns are different in Pseudomonas ADP and C. heintzii suggesting that the host may influence the expression of plasmid-borne atrazine-catabolic potential.     

PCR amplification on a microarray of gel-immobilized oligonucleotides: detection of bacterial toxin- and drug-resistant genes and their mutations

PCR amplification on a microarray of gel-immobilized primers (microchip) has been developed. One of a pair of PCR primers was immobilized inside a separate microchip polyacrylamide porous gel pad of 0.1 x 0.1 x 0.02 (or 0.04) micron in size and 0.2 (or 0.4) nL in volume. The amplification was carried out simultaneously both in solution covering the microchip array and inside gel pads. Each gel pad contained the immobilized forward primers, while the fluorescently labeled reverse primers, as well as all components of the amplification reaction, diffused into the gel pads from the solution. To increase the amplification efficiency, the forward primers were also added into the solution. The kinetics of amplification was measured in real time in parallel for all gel pads with a fluorescent microscope equipped with a charge-coupled device (CCD) camera. The accuracy of the amplification was assessed by using the melting curves obtained for the duplexes formed by the labeled amplification product and the gel-immobilized primers during the amplification process; alternatively, the duplexes were produced by hybridization of the extended immobilized primers with labeled oligonucleotide probes. The on-chip amplification was applied to detect the anthrax toxin genes and the plasmid-borne beta-lactamase gene responsible for bacterial ampicillin resistance. The allele-specific type of PCR amplification was used to identify the Shiga toxin gene and discriminate it from the Shiga-like one. The genomic mutations responsible for rifampicin resistance of the Mycobacterium tuberculosis strains were detected by the same type of PCR amplification of the rpoB gene fragment isolated from sputum of tuberculosis patients. The on-chip PCR amplification has been shown to be a rapid, inexpensive and powerful tool to test genes responsible for bacterial toxin production and drug resistance, as well as to reveal point nucleotide mutations.     

Rapid detection and isolation of known and putative alpha-L-arabinofuranosidase genes using degenerate PCR primers

alpha-L-Arabinofuranosidases (AFases; EC 3.2.1.55) are exo-type enzymes, which hydrolyze terminal nonreducing arabinose residues from various polysaccharides such as arabinan and arabinoxylan. Genome-wide BLAST search showed that various bacterial strains possess the putative AFase genes with well-conserved motif sequences at the nucleotide and amino acid sequence levels. In this study, two sets of degenerate PCR primers were designed and tested to detect putative AFase genes, based on their three highly conserved amino acid blocks (PGGNFV, GNEMDG, and DEWNVW). Among 20 Bacillus-associated species, 13 species were revealed to have putative AFase genes in their genome and they share over 67% of amino acid identities with each other. Based on the partial sequence obtained from an isolate, an AFase from Geobacillus sp. was cloned and expressed in E. coli. Enzymatic characterization has verified that the resulting enzyme corresponds to a typical AFase. Accordingly, degenerate PCR primers developed in this work can be used for fast, easy, and specific detection and isolation of putative AFase genes from bacterial cells.     

Development of PCR primers specific for the amplification and direct sequencing of gyrB genes from microbacteria, order Actinomycetales

PCR primer sets were developed for the specific amplification and sequence analyses encoding the gyrase subunit B (gyrB) of members of the family Microbacteriaceae, class Actinobacteria. The family contains species highly related by 16S rRNA gene sequence analyses. In order to test if the gene sequence analysis of gyrB is appropriate to discriminate between closely related species, we evaluate the 16S rRNA gene phylogeny of its members. As the published universal primer set for gyrB failed to amplify the responding gene of the majority of the 80 type strains of the family, three new primer sets were identified that generated fragments with a composite sequence length of about 900 nt. However, the amplification of all three fragments was successful only in 25% of the 80 type strains. In this study, the substitution frequencies in genes encoding gyrase and 16S rDNA were compared for 10 strains of nine genera. The frequency of gyrB nucleotide substitution is significantly higher than that of the 16S rDNA, and no linear correlation exists between the similarities of both molecules among members of the Microbacteriaceae. The phylogenetic analyses using the gyrB sequences provide higher resolution than using 16S rDNA sequences and seem able to discriminate between closely related species.     

Selective and sensitive method for PCR amplification of Escherichia coli 16S rRNA genes in soil

A set of PCR primers targeting 16S rRNA gene sequences was designed, and PCR parameters were optimized to develop a robust and reliable protocol for selective amplification of Escherichia coli 16S rRNA genes. The method was capable of discriminating E. coli from other enteric bacteria, including its closest relative, Shigella. Selective amplification of E. coli occurred only when the annealing temperature in the PCR was elevated to 72 degrees C, which is 10 degrees C higher than the optimum for the primers. Sensitivity was retained by modifying the length of steps in the PCR, by increasing the number of cycles, and most importantly by optimizing the MgCl(2) concentration. The PCR protocol developed can be completed in less then 2 h and, by using Southern hybridization, has a detection limit of ca. 10 genomic equivalents per reaction. The method was demonstrated to be effective for detecting E. coli DNA in heterogeneous DNA samples, such as those extracted from soil.     

ATP amplification for ultrasensitive bioluminescence assay: detection of a single bacterial cell

We developed an ultrasensitive bioluminescence assay of ATP by employing (i) adenylate kinase (ADK) for converting AMP + ATP to two molecules of ADP, (ii) polyphosphate (polyP) kinase (PPK) for converting ADP back to ATP (ATP amplification), and (iii) a commercially available firefly luciferase. A highly purified PPK-ADK fusion protein efficiently amplified ATP, resulting in high levels of bioluminescence in the firefly luciferase reaction. The present method, which was approximately 10,000-fold more sensitive to ATP than the conventional bioluminescence assay, allowed us to detect bacterial contamination as low as one colony-forming unit (CFU) of Escherichia coli per assay.