Chefs' Opinions About Reducing the Calorie Content of Menu Items in Restaurants

Modifying the energy content of foods, particularly foods eaten away from home, is important in addressing the obesity epidemic. Chefs in the restaurant industry are uniquely placed to influence the provision of reduced‐calorie foods, but little is known about their opinions on this issue. A survey was conducted among chefs attending US culinary meetings about strategies for creating reduced‐calorie foods and opportunities for introducing such items on restaurant menus. The 432 respondents were from a wide variety of employment positions and the majority had been in the restaurant industry for ≥20 years. Nearly all chefs (93%) thought that the calories in menu items could be reduced by 10–25% without customers noticing. To decrease the calories in two specific foods, respondents were more likely to select strategies for reducing energy density than for reducing portion size (P < 0.004). Low consumer demand was identified as the greatest barrier to including reduced‐calorie items on the menu by 38% of chefs, followed by the need for staff skills and training (24%), and high ingredient cost (18%). The majority of respondents (71%) ranked taste as the most influential factor in the success of reduced‐calorie items (P < 0.0001). The results of this survey indicate that opportunities exist for reducing the energy content of restaurant items. Ongoing collaboration is needed between chefs and public health professionals to ensure that appealing reduced‐calorie menu items are more widely available in restaurants and that research is directed toward effective ways to develop and promote these items.     

Effects of age on children's intake of large and self-selected food portions

Objective: Whether developmental periods exist in which children become particularly sensitive to environmental influences on eating is unclear. This research evaluated the effects of age on intake of large and self‐selected portions among children 2 to 9 years of age. Research Methods and Procedures: Seventy‐five non‐Hispanic white children 2 to 3, 5 to 6, and 8 to 9 years of age were seen at a dinner meal in reference, large, and self‐selected portion size conditions in which the size of an entrée was age‐appropriate, doubled, and determined by the child, respectively. Weighed food intake data were collected. Entrée bite size and bite frequency were assessed. Height and weight measurements were obtained. Results: The effect of age on children's intake of the large portion was not significant. Entrée consumption was 29% greater (p < 0.001) and meal energy intake was 13% greater (p < 0.01) in the large portion condition than in the reference condition. Increases in entrée consumption were attributable to increases in average bite size (p < 0.001). Neither child weight nor maternal weight predicted children's intake of large portions. Self‐selection resulted in decreased entrée (p < 0.05) and meal energy (p < 0.01) only among those children who ate more when served the large portion. Discussion: The results of this research confirm that serving large entrée portions promotes increased intake at meals among 2‐ to 9‐year‐old children. These findings suggest that any age‐related differences in children's response to large portions are likely to be smaller than previously suspected.     

The effect of large portion sizes on energy intake is sustained for 11 days

Objective: A previous study showed that increasing the portion sizes of all foods led to an increase in energy intake that was sustained over 2 days. The objective of the present study was to determine whether participants would compensate for excess energy intake or continue to overeat when portion sizes were increased for 11 days. Research Methods and Procedures: Participants in the study were 23 normal‐weight and overweight participants (10 women and 13 men). All of their foods and caloric beverages were provided during two different periods of 11 consecutive days, which were separated by a 2‐week interval. During one period, standard portions of all items were served; during the other, all portion sizes were increased by 50%. Results: The 50% increase in portion sizes resulted in a mean increase in daily energy intake of 423 ± 27 kcal (p < 0.0001), which did not differ significantly between women and men. This increase was sustained for 11 days and did not decline significantly over time, leading to a mean cumulative increase in intake of 4636 ± 532 kcal. A significant effect of portion size on intake was seen at all meals and in all categories of foods except fruit (as a snack) and vegetables. The effect of portion size on intake was not influenced by the body weight status of participants. Discussion: These results strengthen the evidence suggesting that increased portions contribute to the overconsumption of energy and to excess body weight.     

Obesity and food away from home: What drives the socioeconomic gradient in excess body weight?

Rising obesity rates are one of the most challenging public health issues in many emerging economies. To what extent food away from home (FAFH) and its nutritional components are behind this rise is not yet well understood. To address the issue, this paper combines a representative restaurant survey that includes detailed information on the diet quality of the most widely consumed meals and their nutritional components from 1605 restaurants and a representative household survey with anthropometric measures of adult women living in 40 neighborhoods in the Lima Metropolitan Area. One important advantage of the dataset is the fact that nutrition professionals observed the preparation of the meals and that they were subject to a detailed laboratory analysis. Exploiting this data, we examine the differences in nutritional quality of FAFH among 40 neighborhoods of various socioeconomic groups and explore whether these differences can explain part of the observed socioeconomic gradient in excess body weight. The findings indicate that less healthy food in restaurants located in the food environment of the households is significantly associated with higher rates of obesity and overweight. In particular, the high supply and intake of sodium potentially drives higher excess body weight. The study also finds that up to 15 percent of the socioeconomic gradient in obesity is attributable to the restaurant food quality in the food environment of the households.     

Increased Portion Size Leads to Increased Energy Intake in a Restaurant Meal

Objective: Eating frequently in restaurants is one of the behaviors associated with obesity. This study examined whether increasing the portion size of an entrée affected energy intake at a restaurant meal. Research Methods and Procedures: In a cafeteria‐style restaurant on different days, the size of a pasta entrée was varied from a standard portion (248 g) to a large portion (377 g). The entrée price was not changed. Intake of the entrée was determined by covertly weighing each dish before and after the meal; intake of all other foods was determined by estimating the percent consumed. The 180 adult customers who purchased the entrée also completed a survey in which they rated characteristics of the meal, including the appropriateness of the entrée portion size and the amount that they ate compared with their usual meal. Results: Portion size had a significant effect on intake of the entrée (p < 0.0001). Compared with customers who purchased the standard portion, those who purchased the larger portion increased their energy intake of the entrée by 43% (719 kJ; 172 kcal) and of the entire meal by 25% (664 kJ; 159 kcal). There was no difference between the two groups of customers in ratings of the appropriateness of the portion size or of the amount that was eaten in relation to their usual meal. Discussion: In a restaurant setting, increasing the size of an entrée results in increased energy intake. These results support the suggestion that large restaurant portions may be contributing to the obesity epidemic.     

Away-from-home food intake and risk for obesity: examining the influence of context

Objective: This study examined sociodemographic and cultural determinants of away‐from‐home food consumption in two contexts and the influence of frequency of away‐from‐home food consumption on children's dietary intake and parent and child weight status. Methods and Procedures: Parents of children (N = 708) in grades K‐2 were recruited from 13 elementary schools in Southern California. Parents were asked through a questionnaire the frequency with which they eat meals away from home and the restaurant they frequented most often. The height and weight of the parents and their children were measured to calculate BMI. Results: Consuming foods at least once a week from relatives/neighbors/friends (RNF) homes was associated with children's dietary intake and children's risk for obesity. For example, children of parents with weekly or greater RNF food consumption drank more sugar‐sweetened beverages. Parents of families who ate at restaurants at least weekly reported that their children consumed more sugar‐sweetened beverages, more sweet/savory snacks, and less water compared with families who did not frequent restaurants this often. The type of restaurant visited did not affect diet intake or obesity. More acculturated families exhibited less healthy dietary behaviors than less acculturated families. Discussion: Restaurants remain an important setting for preventing child and adult obesity, but other settings outside the home need to be considered in future intervention research. This may especially involve eating in the homes of RNF.     

Do fast food restaurants surrounding schools affect childhood obesity?

In this study, we estimate the effect of fast food environment surrounding schools on childhood body mass index (BMI). We use two methods that arrive at a similar conclusion, but with different implications. Using school distance from the nearest federal highway to instrument for restaurant location, we find the surrounding restaurants to only marginally affect a student’s BMI measure. The effect size also decreases with increasing radial distances from school, 0.016 standard deviations at one-third of a mile and 0.0032 standard deviations at a mile radial distance. This indicates the decreasing influence of restaurants on a child’s BMI as its distance from school increases. On a subset of students who were exogenously assigned to different school food environment, we find no effect of the fast food restaurants. An important contextual aspect is that nearly all schools in this sample observed closed campus policy, which does not allow students to leave campus during lunch hours.     

Effect of increased dairy consumption on appetitive ratings and food intake

Objective: The influence of dairy product consumption on food intake and appetitive sensations was explored in a cross‐over design study with individuals who were habitually low (<1 serving/d) or high (>3 servings/d) dairy consumers. Research Methods and Procedures: Fifty‐eight participants were required to eat one portion of dairy each day (low dairy) or three portions of dairy each day (high dairy) for 7 days. After a 7‐day washout period, the opposite treatment condition was completed. Food intake and appetitive ratings were measured on each day of the treatment periods. Results: During the high‐dairy period, participants consumed 209 kcal/d more than during the low dairy period (p < 0.05). There were no significant differences in subjective appetite ratings. Habitual dairy use did not influence either the appetitive or dietary findings. Discussion: These data indicate that increasing dairy consumption may lead to increased energy intake, which could potentially cause weight gain.     

Restaurant and food service life cycle assessment and development of a sustainability standard

Purpose  

There is no clear guidance for responsible food service operations to reduce their environmental footprint, so the efforts put forth by a restaurant may not have the environmental impact intended. As a result, Green Seal conducted life cycle assessment research on restaurants and food service operations to define priorities for environmental improvement. This information was then used to develop a sustainability standard and certification (i.e., ecolabel) program.     

Taste Tests: Pizza and the Gastropolitical Laboratory in Mumbai

Abstract

This article is about experiments in taste. Focused on the cultural politics of pizza in Mumbai, it highlights the visceral work required to naturalize consumer choice as a catalyst of social futures in contemporary India. It emerges out of interviews and observations among food marketers and among customers and workers in a pizza restaurant. Guided by the concept of ‘experimentality’ elaborated in medical anthropology and science and technology studies, the article reframes definitions of food in experimental terms through two ethnographic registers. The first narrative focuses on the marketing of pizza, and explains how marketers turned their restaurants into laboratories of cosmopolitan cultivation. The second narrative shows how laboring bodies become enrolled in that laboratory, as young adults recruited from low-income neighborhoods come to work at a pizza restaurant. Such experiments blur the lines between evidence and enjoyment, and ultimately add up to a revaluation of public eating itself.     

Frequency of indicator bacteria,Salmonella and diarrhoeagenic Escherichia coli pathotypes on ready‐to‐eat cooked vegetable salads from Mexican restaurants

The presence of coliform bacteria, faecal coliforms, Escherichia coli, diarrhoeagenic E. coli pathotypes (DEP) and Salmonella were determined in ready‐to‐eat cooked vegetable salads (RECS) from restaurants in Pachuca city, Mexico. The RECS were purchased from three types of restaurants: national chain restaurants (A), local restaurants (B) and small restaurants (C). Two restaurants for each A and B, and three for C, were included. Forty RECS samples were purchased at each A and B restaurant and 20 at each C restaurant. Of the overall total of 220 analysed samples, 100, 98·2, 72·3, 4·1 and 4·1% had coliform bacteria, faecal coliforms, E. coli, DEP and Salmonella, respectively. Identified DEP included enteropathogenic E. coli (EPEC), enterotoxigenic E. coli (ETEC) and Shiga toxin‐producing E. coli (STEC). The EPEC, ETEC and STEC were isolated each from 1·4% of samples. No E. coli O157:H7 were detected in any STEC‐positive samples. The analysis of Kruskal–Wallis anova and median test of microbiological data showed that the microbiological quality of RECS did not differ between the different restaurants (P > 0·05).

Significance and Impact of the Study

This is the first report regarding microbiological quality and Salmonella, enteropathogenic E. coli (EPEC), enterotoxigenic E. coli (ETEC) and Shiga toxin‐producing E. coli (STEC) isolation from ready‐to‐eat cooked vegetable salads from Mexican restaurants. Ready‐to‐eat cooked vegetable salads could be an important factor contributing to the endemicity of EPEC, ETEC and STEC, and Salmonella caused gastroenteritis in Mexico.     

Changes in the calorie and nutrient content of purchased fast food meals after calorie menu labeling: A natural experiment

BackgroundCalorie menu labeling is a policy that requires food establishments to post the calories on menu offerings to encourage healthy food choice. Calorie labeling has been implemented in the United States since May 2018 per the Affordable Care Act, but to the best of our knowledge, no studies have evaluated the relationship between calorie labeling and meal purchases since nationwide implementation of this policy. Our objective was to investigate the relationship between calorie labeling and the calorie and nutrient content of purchased meals after a fast food franchise began labeling in April 2017, prior to the required nationwide implementation, and after nationwide implementation of labeling in May 2018, when all large US chain restaurants were required to label their menus.Methods and findingsWe obtained weekly aggregated sales data from 104 restaurants that are part of a fast food franchise for 3 national chains in 3 US states: Louisiana, Mississippi, and Texas. The franchise provided all sales data from April 2015 until April 2019. The franchise labeled menus in April 2017, 1 year prior to the required nationwide implementation date of May 2018 set by the US Food and Drug Administration. We obtained nutrition information for items sold (calories, fat, carbohydrates, protein, saturated fat, sugar, dietary fiber, and sodium) from Menustat, a publicly available database with nutrition information for items offered at the top revenue-generating US restaurant chains. We used an interrupted time series to find level and trend changes in mean weekly calorie and nutrient content per transaction after franchise and nationwide labeling. The analytic sample represented 331,776,445 items purchased across 67,112,342 transactions. Franchise labeling was associated with a level change of −54 calories/transaction (95% confidence interval [CI]: −67, −42, p < 0.0001) and a subsequent 3.3 calories/transaction increase per 4-week period (95% CI: 2.5, 4.1, p < 0.0001). Nationwide implementation was associated with a level decrease of −82 calories/transaction (95% CI: −88, −76, p < 0.0001) and a subsequent −2.1 calories/transaction decrease per 4-week period (95% CI: −2.9, −1.3, p < 0.0001). At the end of the study, the model-based predicted mean calories/transaction was 4.7% lower (change = −73 calories/transaction, 95% CI: −81, −65), and nutrients/transaction ranged from 1.8% lower (saturated fat) to 7.0% lower (sugar) than what we would expect had labeling not been implemented. The main limitations were potential residual time-varying confounding and lack of individual-level transaction data.ConclusionsIn this study, we observed that calorie labeling was associated with small decreases in mean calorie and nutrient content of fast food meals 2 years after franchise labeling and nearly 1 year after implementation of labeling nationwide. These changes imply that calorie labeling was associated with small improvements in purchased meal quality in US chain restaurants.

In an interrupted time series analysis, Joshua Petimar and colleagues investigate the relationship between the implementation of calorie content labelling on fast food restaurant menus and changes in calorie and nutrition content of meal purchases from a restaurant franchise in the US.     

Assessment of microbiological quality of food preparation process in some restaurants of Makkah city

Microbiological contamination of food processing surfaces and utensils increases considerably the risk of food-borne illnesses via cross-contamination. Hence, the safety of served meals and beverages can be evaluated through the assessment of the microbiological quality of food contact surfaces in food-serving establishments. This study carried out in Makkah city aimed to assess the microbiological contamination levels on food processing surfaces and utensils in 43 restaurants from the 9 main districts in the city. A total of 294 swab preparations were taken from 16 types of food contact surfaces including cutting boards, food containers, knives, serving dishes and other utensils were examined. Ninety samples (31%) showed more than 10 CFU/cm² which were considered positive for microbiological contamination. Meat chopping devices and cutting boards were found as the most contaminated food contact surfaces (60% and 50%), while washed serving dishes and fridge handles were the least contaminated (21% and 18%). Microorganisms detected in the study were Klebsiella spp. (18.7%), Escherichia coli (17,7%), Staphylococcus aureus (4,4%), Pseudomonas spp. (1.7%), Proteus spp. (0.7%), Bacillus cereus (0.7%), and Candida sp. (0.3%). Klebsiella spp. and E. coli were observed in at least one sample from each of the sixteen different food contact surfaces. The incidence of restaurants with contaminated food contact surfaces was significantly variable among the different districts, with a value as high as 57% in the most affected district and 20% in the less affected. No contamination with Salmonella spp. or Listeria spp. was detected, however, the detection of Bacillus cereus, a toxin-forming microorganism, in two different restaurants underlines the need for continuous microbiological assessment to ensure standard sanitation levels in restaurants and catering establishments of Makkah city.     

不同规模餐馆食物浪费及其氮足迹——以北京市为例

餐饮食物浪费的普遍性和严重性已得到了社会各界的关注。通过实证研究的方法对餐饮消费中食物浪费问题进行了研究,并从食物全供应链的视角,对比分析了不同规模餐馆食物浪费的氮足迹及其环境影响。研究表明:北京市餐饮食物浪费人均浪费量为74.39g/人次,其含氮量为1.24g/人次,约占总浪费量的2%。北京市餐饮食物浪费所引起总的氮排放量为16.37 g/人次,其中有1.24g/人次的氮排放来自于食物的直接浪费,其余15.13g/人次氮排放来自于食物生产过程。北京市餐饮食物浪费的氮足迹为0.22g N/g,即每浪费1g的食物,就会有0.22 g的氮排放到环境中。对比不同规模餐馆的食物浪费情况可知,大型餐馆的人均浪费量最高,有99.38g/人次,其氮排放量也相应最大,为22.53g/人次;中型餐馆和小型餐馆的食物浪费人均量及N排放量依次减少,而快餐的最低,仅为北京市整体平均水平的1/3。     

A survey for serotyping, antibiotic resistance profiling and PFGE characterization of and the potential multiplication of restaurant Salmonella isolates

AIMS: The aims of this research were (1) to determine the occurrence of Salmonella in Irish restaurant kitchens and (2) to investigate the serovar, genotype, antibiotic resistance profile and survival/growth profile of the Salmonella under catering chilled storage and temperature abuse conditions. METHODS: Five sites/tools in each of 200 randomly selected restaurant kitchens were examined for the presence of presumptive Salmonella spp. by enrichment. Serotyping, antibiotic resistance studies and genotyping were performed using the Kauffmann-White, CLSI and PulseNet methods, respectively. Survival/growth was investigated in milk, meat and vegetable products. RESULTS: Presumptive isolates from 15 of the 200 restaurant kitchens were recovered and confirmed as Salmonella positive. Seven different serovars showing a variety of antibiotic resistance profiles were detected. PFGE profiles suggested that isolates from geographically adjacent restaurants were related. Salmonella survived in foods stored at typical catering refrigeration temperatures and increased by approximately 0.8 log(10) CFU ml(-1) per day in food products stored under conditions of thermal abuse (20 degrees C). CONCLUSIONS: Inadequate hygiene has resulted in contamination of restaurant kitchens with Salmonella, which may persist/multiply in cross-contaminated foods. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: This study highlights the need for greater hygiene in restaurant kitchens coupled with rapid chilling of food not for immediate consumption and reheating before subsequent serving.     

Effects of Doubling the Portion Size of Fruit and Vegetable Side Dishes on Children's Intake at a Meal

Increasing the portion size of energy‐dense entrées has been shown to increase children's energy intake during a meal. It remains to be investigated whether serving larger portions to children can be used to promote intake of more healthful foods, such as fruits and vegetables (F&V). The aim of the present study was to examine the effects of increasing the portion size of F&V side dishes on children's intake. Forty‐three children (22 boys, 21 girls), aged 5–6 years, were served dinner once a week for 2 weeks. Each dinner consisted of pasta with tomato sauce, three F&V side dishes (broccoli, carrots, and applesauce), and milk. The portion size of the F&V was doubled between experimental conditions whereas the size of the pasta remained constant. Doubling the portion size of the side dishes resulted in a 43% increase in children's intake of the fruit side dish (P = 0.001), but did not affect children's intake of the two vegetable side dishes (P > 0.60). Further, when the portion size of F&V side dishes was doubled, children ate significantly less of the pasta (P = 0.04). The difference in meal energy intake between portion size conditions (19.5 ± 16.3 kcal) was not significant (P = 0.24). Although more studies are needed to understand whether increases in portion size can influence vegetable intake, children did eat more in response to a large quantity of a preferred low energy‐dense fruit side dish at meals. Thus variations in portion size can be used strategically to help children achieve the recommended intake of fruits.     

Overeating in America: Association between Restaurant Food Consumption and Body Fatness in Healthy Adult Men and Women Ages 19 to 80

McCRORY, MEGAN A., PAUL J. FUSS, NICHOLAS P. HAYS, ANGELA G. VINKEN, ANDREW S. GREENBERG, AND SUSAN B. ROBERTS. Overeating in America: association between restaurant food consumption and body fatness in healthy adult men and women ages 19 to 80. Obes Res. Purpose: To examine the association between the frequency of consuming restaurant food and body fatness in adults. Research Methods and Procedures: Usual free-living dietary intake and the frequency of consuming food from seven different restaurant types (fried chicken, burger, pizza, Chinese, Mexican, fried fish, and “other”) were assessed by food frequency questionnaire in 73 healthy men and women [ages 19 to 80, body mass index (BMI) 18 to 331. In addition, body fatness (percent weight) was determined by hydrostatic weighing, and physical activity and other lifestyle parameters were assessed by questionnaire. The relationship between the frequency of consuming restaurant food and body fatness was determined after controlling for age, sex, and other confounders by using multiple regression techniques. Results: Restaurant food consumption averaged 7.5±8.5 (Standard Deviation) timedmonth. After controlling for age and sex, the frequency of consuming restaurant food was positively associated with body fatness (partial r = 0. 36, p = 0. 003). The strength of this association did not change after controlling for education level, smoking status, and alcohol intake, but after additionally controlling for physical activity, the partial r increased to 0. 42 (p = 0. 004). Total daily intakes of energy, fat, and fiber were significantly associated with restaurant food consumption frequency (r = 0. 59, 0. 28, and ?0.45, respectively, p = 0.02 to 0.0001). Discussion: The frequency of consuming restaurant food was positively associated with increased body fatness in adults. The increasing proportion of household food income spent on food prepared away from home in the United States may therefore help explain the rising national prevalence of obesity.     

Development of a Climate Choice meal concept for restaurants based on carbon footprinting

Purpose

Significant reductions in greenhouse gas emissions from food production and consumption can be made at the level of individual diet. Together with the food and beverage sector, consumers could play a significant role by making informed choices that benefit the environment and their own health. Communicating information on carbon footprints to consumers is challenging and should be made very simple, yet reliable. This sector is showing interest in using eco-design tools to decrease climate change impacts of their meals.

Methods

A long-term concept for communicating information on carbon footprints associated with meals was developed in Finland. The criteria for a Climate Choice meal were created through stakeholder dialogue, and three restaurant operators piloted the concept in 25 restaurants. In addition to climate change impacts, possibilities to include other sustainability criteria were reviewed. The concept was based on simplified carbon footprinting of raw material production and processing of ingredients for 105 commonly selected lunches. The carbon footprint calculations allowed the development of the Climate Choice meal concept, its criteria, and piloting the concept. Based on experiences from restaurants and consumers from the pilot phase, final criteria were developed.

Results and discussion

The Climate Choice meal concept was created using two alternative climate criteria: one for immediate implementation and another for future implementation, in cases where carbon footprinting is feasible for restaurants. The criteria for immediate implementation include a list of mainly plant-based ingredients with low carbon footprint. Regarding future criteria, it should be made easy enough for restaurants to estimate the carbon footprints of their meals, allowing labeling of meals when their carbon footprints are at least 25 % smaller than for an average meal. In addition to the two climate criteria, Climate Choice meals need to follow Finnish public catering nutritional recommendations, taking into account that fish species on the Red List of WWF’s Finnish seafood guide are prohibited.

Conclusions

To promote climate-friendly eating, a long-term concept rather than a short-term campaign is needed. There is interest among consumers and restaurants for information on food carbon footprints and sustainability. Lunch is regarded as a good opportunity for consumers to learn about climate-friendly eating. The main challenges are to produce sufficiently reliable background data and to raise consumer and the food and beverage sector interest and understanding of carbon footprints associated with food.

     

How Many Calories Are on Our Plate? Expected Fullness,Not Liking,Determines Meal‐size Selection

The availability of highly palatable food is thought to stimulate the selection of larger meals (leading to weight gain and obesity). In this article, we explore aspects of this proposition. Specifically, we scrutinize two basic assumptions: (i) palatable energy‐dense foods are more rewarding (desired), and (ii) these palatable foods are selected in relatively larger portions. In combination with palatability, we also consider the relative role for “expected satiation”—the extent to which a food is expected to deliver satiation. A total of 17 commonly consumed foods were assessed by 28 normal‐weight participants at lunchtime. Critically, our measure of food reward and expected satiation involves comparisons between foods based on equicaloric portions. When assessed in this way, we find that food reward and ideal portion sizes (in kcal) are both closely associated with expected satiation, but not with “expected liking.” Low expected satiation (not expected liking) predicts the selection of large portion sizes (in kcal) and foods with this characteristic tend to be more energy dense and are regarded as less (not more) rewarding (when compared calorie for calorie). Together, these findings challenge the role of palatability in meal‐size selection and they highlight the importance of expected satiation, a “nonaffective” component of food reward.     

A New Method to Monitor the Contribution of Fast Food Restaurants to the Diets of US Children

Background

American adults consume 11.3% of total daily calories from foods and beverages from fast food restaurants. The contribution of different types of fast food restaurants to the diets of US children is unknown.

Objective

To estimate the consumption of energy, sodium, added sugars, and solid fats among US children ages 4–19 y by fast food restaurant type.

Methods

Analyses used the first 24-h recall for 12,378 children in the 2003–2010 cycles of the nationally representative National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES 2003–2010). NHANES data identify foods by location of origin, including stores and fast food restaurants (FFR). A novel custom algorithm divided FFRs into 8 segments and assigned meals and snacks to each. These included burger, pizza, sandwich, Mexican, Asian, fish, and coffee/snack restaurants. The contribution of each restaurant type to intakes of energy and other dietary constituents was then assessed by age group (4–11 y and 12–19 y) and by race/ethnicity.

Results

Store-bought foods and beverages provided 64.8% of energy, 61.9% of sodium, 68.9% of added sugars, and 60.1% of solid fats. FFRs provided 14.1% of energy, 15.9% of sodium, 10.4% of added sugars and 17.9% of solid fats. Among FFR segments, burger restaurants provided 6.2% of total energy, 5.8% of sodium, 6.2% of added sugars, and 7.6% of solid fats. Less energy was provided by pizza (3.3%), sandwich (1.4%), Mexican (1.3%), and chicken restaurants (1.2%). Non-Hispanic black children obtained a greater proportion of their total energy (7.4%), sodium (7.1%), and solid fats (9.5%) from burger restaurants as compared to non-Hispanic white children (6.0% of energy, 5.5% of sodium, and 7.3% of solid fat).

Conclusions

These novel analyses, based on consumption data by fast food market segment, allow public health stakeholders to better monitor the effectiveness of industry efforts to promote healthier menu options.