Assessing predation risk to threatened fauna from their prevalence in predator scats: dingoes and rodents in arid Australia

The prevalence of threatened species in predator scats has often been used to gauge the risks that predators pose to threatened species, with the infrequent occurrence of a given species often considered indicative of negligible predation risks. In this study, data from 4087 dingo (Canis lupus dingo and hybrids) scats were assessed alongside additional information on predator and prey distribution, dingo control effort and predation rates to evaluate whether or not the observed frequency of threatened species in dingo scats warrants more detailed investigation of dingo predation risks to them. Three small rodents (dusky hopping-mice Notomys fuscus; fawn hopping-mice Notomys cervinus; plains mice Pseudomys australis) were the only threatened species detected in <8% of dingo scats from any given site, suggesting that dingoes might not threaten them. However, consideration of dingo control effort revealed that plains mice distribution has largely retracted to the area where dingoes have been most heavily subjected to lethal control. Assessing the hypothetical predation rates of dingoes on dusky hopping-mice revealed that dingo predation alone has the potential to depopulate local hopping-mice populations within a few months. It was concluded that the occurrence of a given prey species in predator scats may be indicative of what the predator ate under the prevailing conditions, but in isolation, such data can have a poor ability to inform predation risk assessments. Some populations of threatened fauna assumed to derive a benefit from the presence of dingoes may instead be susceptible to dingo-induced declines under certain conditions.     

Lethal control of an apex predator has unintended cascading effects on forest mammal assemblages

Disruption to species-interaction networks caused by irruptions of herbivores and mesopredators following extirpation of apex predators is a global driver of ecosystem reorganization and biodiversity loss. Most studies of apex predators'' ecological roles focus on effects arising from their interactions with herbivores or mesopredators in isolation, but rarely consider how the effects of herbivores and mesopredators interact. Here, we provide evidence that multiple cascade pathways induced by lethal control of an apex predator, the dingo, drive unintended shifts in forest ecosystem structure. We compared mammal assemblages and understorey structure at seven sites in southern Australia. Each site comprised an area where dingoes were poisoned and an area without control. The effects of dingo control on mammals scaled with body size. Activity of herbivorous macropods, arboreal mammals and a mesopredator, the red fox, were greater, but understorey vegetation sparser and abundances of small mammals lower, where dingoes were controlled. Structural equation modelling suggested that both predation by foxes and depletion of understorey vegetation by macropods were related to small mammal decline at poisoned sites. Our study suggests that apex predators’ suppressive effects on herbivores and mesopredators occur simultaneously and should be considered in tandem in order to appreciate the extent of apex predators’ indirect effects.     

Continental patterns in the diet of a top predator: Australia's dingo

相似文献   

Resource pulses affect prey selection and reduce dietary diversity of dingoes in arid Australia

相似文献   

More than Mere Numbers: The Impact of Lethal Control on the Social Stability of a Top-Order Predator

Population control of socially complex species may have profound ecological implications that remain largely invisible if only their abundance is considered. Here we discuss the effects of control on a socially complex top-order predator, the dingo (Canis lupus dingo). Since European occupation of Australia, dingoes have been controlled over much of the continent. Our aim was to investigate the effects of control on their abundance and social stability. We hypothesized that dingo abundance and social stability are not linearly related, and proposed a theoretical model in which dingo populations may fluctuate between three main states: (A) below carrying capacity and socially fractured, (B) above carrying capacity and socially fractured, or (C) at carrying capacity and socially stable. We predicted that lethal control would drive dingoes into the unstable states A or B, and that relaxation of control would allow recovery towards C. We tested our predictions by surveying relative abundance (track density) and indicators of social stability (scent-marking and howling) at seven sites in the arid zone subject to differing degrees of control. We also monitored changes in dingo abundance and social stability following relaxation and intensification of control. Sites where dingoes had been controlled within the previous two years were characterized by low scent-marking activity, but abundance was similar at sites with and without control. Signs of social stability steadily increased the longer an area was allowed to recover from control, but change in abundance did not follow a consistent path. Comparison of abundance and stability among all sites and years demonstrated that control severely fractures social groups, but that the effect of control on abundance was neither consistent nor predictable. Management decisions involving large social predators must therefore consider social stability to ensure their conservation and ecological functioning.     

Linking social identity,risk perception,and behavioral psychology to understand predator management by livestock producers

Human behaviors can determine the success of efforts to restore predators to ecosystems. While behaviors such as lethal predator control may impede predator restoration, other land management practices can facilitate coexistence between predators and humans. Socio‐psychological theories provide useful tools for understanding and improving these human behaviors. We explore three frameworks to understand what shapes Australian livestock graziers' behaviors with regards to management of the threat that dingoes pose to livestock. These frameworks are the theory of reasoned action (incorporating values and beliefs about dingoes), the social identity approach, and perception of risk. We distributed a survey to Australian graziers by mail and online (n = 138) which allowed recording of information on these three frameworks and their engagement in lethal dingo control. Among the respondents, we found that all three frameworks were linked with lethal dingo control when assessed individually, but when combined in a hierarchical regression, only social identity (specifically, identifying as an “environmentalist” or “pest controller”) was significant in predicting behavior. This result reveals the strength of social norms and normative beliefs over perceived risk in shaping behavior. As such, social identity is a useful metric for predicting and understanding environmental management behavior. Determining what these social identities mean in a given context is important for identifying how to implement behavior change to promote evidence‐based management that facilitates restoration of wildlife such as predators to landscapes where conflict with humans occurs.     

Prey use by dingoes in a contested landscape: Ecosystem service provider or biodiversity threat?

In Australia, dingoes (Canis lupus dingo) have been implicated in the decline and extinction of a number of vertebrate species. The lowland Wet Tropics of Queensland, Australia is a biologically rich area with many species of rainforest‐restricted vertebrates that could be threatened by dingoes; however, the ecological impacts of dingoes in this region are poorly understood. We determined the potential threat posed by dingoes to native vertebrates in the lowland Wet Tropics using dingo scat/stomach content and stable isotope analyses of hair from dingoes and potential prey species. Common mammals dominated dingo diets. We found no evidence of predation on threatened taxa or rainforest specialists within our study areas. The most significant prey species were northern brown bandicoots (Isoodon macrourus), canefield rats (Rattus sordidus), and agile wallabies (Macropus agilis). All are common species associated with relatively open grass/woodland habitats. Stable isotope analysis suggested that prey species sourced their nutrients primarily from open habitats and that prey choice, as identified by scat/stomach analysis alone, was a poor indicator of primary foraging habitats. In general, we find that prey use by dingoes in the lowland Wet Tropics does not pose a major threat to native and/or threatened fauna, including rainforest specialists. In fact, our results suggest that dingo predation on “pest” species may represent an important ecological service that outweighs potential biodiversity threats. A more targeted approach to managing wild canids is needed if the ecosystem services they provide in these contested landscapes are to be maintained, while simultaneously avoiding negative conservation or economic impacts.     

Mesopredator suppression by an apex predator alleviates the risk of predation perceived by small prey

Predators can impact their prey via consumptive effects that occur through direct killing, and via non-consumptive effects that arise when the behaviour and phenotypes of prey shift in response to the risk of predation. Although predators'' consumptive effects can have cascading population-level effects on species at lower trophic levels there is less evidence that predators'' non-consumptive effects propagate through ecosystems. Here we provide evidence that suppression of abundance and activity of a mesopredator (the feral cat) by an apex predator (the dingo) has positive effects on both abundance and foraging efficiency of a desert rodent. Then by manipulating predators'' access to food patches we further the idea that apex predators provide small prey with refuge from predation by showing that rodents increased their habitat breadth and use of ‘risky′ food patches where an apex predator was common but mesopredators rare. Our study suggests that apex predators'' suppressive effects on mesopredators extend to alleviate both mesopredators'' consumptive and non-consumptive effects on prey.     

Apex predator suppression is linked to restructuring of ecosystems via multiple ecological pathways

Removal of apex predators can drive ecological regime shifts owing to compensatory positive and negative population level responses by organisms at lower trophic levels. Despite evidence that apex predators can influence ecosystems though multiple ecological pathways, most studies investigating apex predators’ effects on ecosystems have considered just one pathway in isolation. Here, we provide evidence that lethal control of an apex predator, the dingo Canis dingo, drives shifts in the structure of Australia's tropical‐savannah ecosystems. We compared mammal assemblages and understorey structure at seven paired‐sites. Each site comprised an area where people poisoned dingoes and an area without dingo control. The effects of dingo control on mammals scaled with body size. Where dingoes were poisoned, we found greater activity of herbivorous macropods and feral cats, a mesopredator, but sparser understorey vegetation and lower abundances of native rodents. Our study suggests that ecological cascades arising from apex predators’ suppressive effects on herbivores and mesopredators occur simultaneously. Concordant effects of dingo removal across tropical‐savannah, forest and desert biomes suggest that dingoes once exerted ubiquitous top–down effects across Australia and provides support for calls that top–down forcing should be considered a fundamental process governing ecosystem structure.     

The feeding ecology of the dingo II. Dietary and numerical relationships with fluctuating prey populations in south-eastern Australia

The dietary and predator-prey relationships of Canis familiaris dingo were studied for 9 yr at a coastal site and for 1.5 yr at a montane site in south-eastern Australia. The percentage occurrences of items eaten were obtained from faeces, and the abundances of prey by counting water-birds, trapping small mammals, and tracking large and medium-sized mammals on specially prepared soil plots. Dingoes were also estimated by tracking. The diet was broad but predominantly mammalian (23 species). Dietary frequencies were grouped around three weight modes, 0.1, 1.25 and 16 kg, corresponding with bush rat (Rattus fuscipes), ringtail possum (Pseudocheirus peregrinus) and swamp wallaby (Wallabia bicolor). The amplitudes of those frequencies approximately doubled from mode to mode, viz. 4, 13.5 and 28.3%, respectively. Medium-sized mammals have been recognized as the staple prey because of their dependability. Their density estimates fluctuated least among prey-groups, and track records of dingoes in the mountains were significantly related to them. Other categories of prey were supplementary (large mammals), opportune (small mammals) and scavenged. Although there were general tendencies for dietary frequencies to follow prey abundances, significant functional and numerical responses were obtained only for water-birds (coot and swan). Their super-abundance in the mid-years of the coastal study and their highly clumped distribution were the likely causes. Predation was disproportionately severe on mammalian prey-classes after an extensive wildfire at the coastal site. Such predation may have suppressed populations of wallabies and kangaroo for 2 yr until the water-birds became super-abundant. The prevalence of wombats in the mountains may have induced heavy predation upon other less numerous large prey. Concepts of profitability in feeding appear to apply to the dingo more than those of optimization of time or energy. The decline in dingoes was correlated most with long-term declines in water-birds and medium-sized mammals. At the time, abundance estimates of wallabies and kangaroos were increasing and those species increasingly predominated in the diet. The ability to hunt co-operatively was apparently ineffectual in preventing decline in dingo numbers. It is suggested that pack size is related inversely to the level of temporal instability in the environment. Frequent wildfires may prevent staple (mediumsized) and supplementary (large) prey from being abundant simultaneously, a combination thought necessary for large pack size.     

Are dingoes a trophic regulator in arid Australia? A comparison of mammal communities on either side of the dingo fence

The direct and indirect interactions that large mammalian carnivores have with other species can have far‐reaching effects on ecosystems. In recent years there has been growing interest in the role that Australia's largest terrestrial predator, the dingo, may have in structuring ecosystems. In this study we investigate the effect of dingo exclusion on mammal communities, by comparing mammal assemblages where dingoes were present and absent. The study was replicated at three locations spanning 300 km in the Strzelecki Desert. We hypothesized that larger species of mammal subject to direct interactions with dingoes should increase in abundance in the absence of dingoes while smaller species subject to predation by mesopredators should decrease in abundance because of increased mesopredator impact. There were stark differences in mammal assemblages on either side of the dingo fence and the effect of dingoes appeared to scale with body size. Kangaroos and red foxes were more abundant in the absence of dingoes while Rabbits and the Dusky Hopping‐mouse Notomys fuscus were less abundant where dingoes were absent, suggesting that they may benefit from lower red fox numbers in the presence of dingoes. Feral cats and dunnarts (Sminthopsis spp.) did not respond to dingo exclusion. Our study provides evidence that dingoes do structure mammal communities in arid Australia; however, dingo exclusion is also associated with a suite of land use factors, including sheep grazing and kangaroo harvesting that may also be expected to influence kangaroo and red fox populations. Maintaining or restoring populations of dingoes may be useful strategies to mitigate the impacts of mesopredators and overgrazing by herbivores.     

Does a top-predator provide an endangered rodent with refuge from an invasive mesopredator?

In arid environments, ecological refuges are often conceptualised as places where animal species can persist through drought owing to the localised persistence of moisture and nutrients. The mesopredator release hypothesis (MRH) predicts that reduced abundance of top-order predators results in an increase in the abundance of smaller predators (mesopredators) and consequently has detrimental impacts on the prey of the smaller predators. Thus according to the MRH, the existence of larger predators may provide prey with refuge from predation. In this study, we investigated how the abundance of an endangered rodent Notomys fuscus is affected by Australia's largest predator, the dingo Canis lupus dingo , introduced mesopredators, introduced herbivores, kangaroos and rainfall. Our surveys showed that N. fuscus was more abundant where dingoes occurred. Generalised linear modelling showed that N. fuscus abundance was associated positively with dingo activity and long-term annual rainfall and negatively with red fox Vulpes vulpes activity. Our results were consistent with the hypothesis that areas with higher rainfall and dingoes provide N. fuscus with refuge from drought and predation by invasive red foxes, respectively. Top-order predators, such as dingoes, could have an important functional role in broad-scale biodiversity conservation programmes by reducing the impacts of mesopredators.     

Does a top predator reduce the predatory impact of an invasive mesopredator on an endangered rodent?

The mesopredator release hypothesis (MRH) predicts that reduced abundance of top‐order predators results in an increase in the abundance of smaller predators (mesopredators) due to a reduction in intra‐guild predation and competition. The irruption of mesopredators that follows the removal of top‐order predators can have detrimental impacts on the prey of the mesopredators. Here we investigated the mechanisms via which the presence of a top‐order predator can benefit prey species. We tested predictions made according to the MRH and foraging theory by contrasting the abundances of an invasive mesopredator (red fox Vulpes vulpes) and an endangered prey species (dusky hopping mouse Notomys fuscus), predator diets, and N. fuscus foraging behaviour in the presence and absence of a top‐predator (dingo Canis lupus dingo). As predicted by the MRH, foxes were more abundant where dingoes were absent. Dietary overlap between sympatric dingoes and foxes was extensive, and fox was recorded in 1 dingo scat possibly indicating intra‐guild predation. Notomys fuscus were more likely to occur in fox scats than dingo scats and as predicted by the MRH N. fuscus were less abundant in the absence of dingoes. The population increase of N. fuscus following rainfall was dampened in the absence of dingoes suggesting that mesopredator release can attenuate bottom‐up effects, although it remains conceivable that differences in grazing regimes associated with dingo exclusion could have also influenced N. fuscus abundance. Notomys fuscus exhibited lower giving‐up densities in the presence of dingoes, consistent with the prediction that their perceived risk of predation would be lower and foraging efficiency greater in the presence of a top‐predator. Our results suggest that mesopredator suppression by a top predator can create a safer environment for prey species where the frequency of fatal encounters between predators and prey is reduced and the non‐consumptive effects of predators are lower.     

Top predators as biodiversity regulators: the dingo Canis lupus dingo as a case study

Top‐order predators often have positive effects on biological diversity owing to their key functional roles in regulating trophic cascades and other ecological processes. Their loss has been identified as a major factor contributing to the decline of biodiversity in both aquatic and terrestrial systems. Consequently, restoring and maintaining the ecological function of top predators is a critical global imperative. Here we review studies of the ecological effects of the dingo Canis lupus dingo, Australia's largest land predator, using this as a case study to explore the influence of a top predator on biodiversity at a continental scale. The dingo was introduced to Australia by people at least 3500 years ago and has an ambiguous status owing to its brief history on the continent, its adverse impacts on livestock production and its role as an ecosystem architect. A large body of research now indicates that dingoes regulate ecological cascades, particularly in arid Australia, and that the removal of dingoes results in an increase in the abundances and impacts of herbivores and invasive mesopredators, most notably the red fox Vulpes vulpes. The loss of dingoes has been linked to widespread losses of small and medium‐sized native mammals, the depletion of plant biomass due to the effects of irrupting herbivore populations and increased predation rates by red foxes. We outline a suite of conceptual models to describe the effects of dingoes on vertebrate populations across different Australian environments. Finally, we discuss key issues that require consideration or warrant research before the ecological effects of dingoes can be incorporated formally into biodiversity conservation programs.     

Weeds mediate the level of intraguild predation in arthropod food webs

Intraguild predation, which is common for generalist predators, is a specific form of omnivory that may suppress the biological control of a pest. The dietary flexibility of a given organism depends on the choice of the C3 (banana crop) and the C4 (weeds) pathways they use and on the trophic level on which they feed. Understanding the conditions in which intraguild predation decreases biological control is a major issue in agroecosystems. We tested whether the contribution of different primary producer pathways in diets of generalist predators mediates the level of intraguild predation. We studied 10 agroecosystems in which banana plants (C3 metabolism) were diversely associated with weeds (C4 metabolism). Diversity in litter macrofauna was relatively low, with a mean between three and eight species per trap. Measurement of stable isotopes showed a significant decrease in the δ¹⁵N values of generalist predators when the C4 pathway contributed more than the C3 pathway to their diet. We rejected hypotheses that an increase in the abundance of prey and that a decrease in prey's δ¹⁵N values occur when the C4 pathway contributes more than the C3 pathway to their diet. The results are consistent with the diet modification hypothesis, that is, intraguild predation is lower when the C4 (weeds) pathway is preferred to the C3 pathway. Our results suggest that when the C4 pathway of weeds is more exploited by herbivores (or detritivores), generalist predators tend to consume these herbivores and thus neglect the intraguild prey. The diverse C4 plant community probably supports a diverse herbivore community that provides alternative prey. Our results provide evidence that increasing plant diversity in agroecosystems should decrease intraguild predation of generalist predators and should therefore improve pest regulation. In an applied perspective, plant diversity could be increased by establishing a more diverse cover‐crop community.     

Biodiversity friend or foe: land use by a top predator,the dingo in contested landscapes of the Australian Wet Tropics

Dingoes (Canis dingo) in the coastal lowlands of Australia's Wet Tropics are perceived as a major threat to biodiversity and subjected to broad‐spectrum lethal control. However, evidence of their impacts is equivocal, and control programmes generally ignore the ecological benefits that dingoes might provide. Previous diet analysis has shown that dingoes in the Wet Tropics primarily prey on common, terrestrial mammals. However, little is known of dingo habitat use or prey acquisition in the region despite these activities having major implications for biodiversity conservation. We investigated land use by dingoes in the lowland Wet Tropics to enable predictions of potential prey types, relative prey use and modes of prey acquisition. Nine dingoes were tracked for 3–6 months. Home ranges and resting areas were estimated using multiple estimators, and habitat use was analysed using compositional analysis of habitat use and generalized additive models. Dingo ranging behaviour suggested that anthropogenic food subsidies were infrequently used. Each territory comprised several sclerophyll forest rest areas with adjacent sugarcane‐grassland high activity areas. Individuals used each rest‐activity area for extended durations before moving on to another. Sclerophyll and rainforests, which contain the fauna species of primary conservation concern, were generally used for rest/sleep, or movement between rest‐activity areas. Activity patterns were consistent with dingoes hunting in open sugarcane‐grassland habitats during daylight hours. Dingo activity was low in areas where fauna species of conservation concern occur, which suggests that dingoes do not pose a threat to their survival. Consequently, current broad‐spectrum lethal control may have minimal benefits or even incur costs for biodiversity. Maximizing the ecosystem services provided by dingoes while simultaneously minimizing their negative impacts requires a more targeted location‐specific management approach, one that assesses and mitigates impacts specifically where background circumstances suggest particular packs may be either a conservation or economic threat.     

The virtuous circle: predator‐friendly farming and ecological restoration in Australia

In Australia, dingoes are widely regarded as enemies of livestock, and accordingly livestock producers commonly attempt to reduce or eradicate them by lethal control. This can have two forms of perverse outcomes: lethal control often does not succeed in reducing dingo populations and can even result in increased attacks on livestock; and the environmental benefits provided by dingoes, some of which are valuable to livestock production, are lost. We describe these outcomes and suggest mechanisms by which tolerance of dingoes could provide benefits to livestock enterprises, at the same time widening the scope of ecological restoration, and humane treatment of wildlife in Australia.     

Irradiated laboratory animal diets: Dominant lethal studies in the mouse

In 4 separate dominant lethal experiments groups of mice of either Charles River CD1 or Alderley Park strains were fed laboratory diets (Oakes, 41B, PRD, BP nutrition rat and mouse maintenance diet No. 1). The diets were either untreated (negative control diets) or irradiated at 1, 2.5 and 5 megarad and were freshly irradiated, or stored. The animals were fed their test diets for a period of 3 weeks prior to mating. Groups of mice given a single intraperitoneal injection of 200 mg cyclophosphamide per kg body weight served as the positive controls.

Freshly irradiated PRD diet fed to male mice of both strains caused an increase in early deaths in females mated to the males in week 7 and to a lesser extent in week 4. The increase due to irradiation was small by comparison with that produced by the positive control compound. The responses for the other irradiated diets showed no significant increases in early deaths although some values for Oakes diet were high. The effect of storage was examined with PRD and BPN diet on one occasion and produced conflicting results.

Thus there was some evidence that irradiated PRD diet has weak mutagenic activity in the meiotic and/or pre-meiotic phase of the spermatogenic cycle which appeared to be lessened on storage; the inclusion of such a diet in toxicological studies would therefore need to be carefully considered.     

Diet‐dependent intraguild predation between the predatory mites Neoseiulus californicus and Neoseiulus cucumeris

Based on the hypothesis that matching diets of intraguild (IG) predator and prey indicate strong food competition and thus intensify intraguild predation (IGP) as compared to non‐matching diets, we scrutinized diet‐dependent mutual IGP between the predatory mites Neoseiulus cucumeris and N. californicus. Both are natural enemies of herbivorous mites and insects and used in biological control of spider mites and thrips in various agricultural crops. Both are generalist predators that may also feed on plant‐derived substances such as pollen. Irrespective of diet (pollen or spider mites), N. cucumeris females had higher predation and oviposition rates and shorter attack latencies on IG prey than N. californicus. Predation rates on larvae were unaffected by diet but larvae from pollen‐fed mothers were a more profitable prey than those from spider‐mite fed mothers resulting in higher oviposition rates of IG predator females. Pollen‐fed protonymphs were earlier attacked by IG predator females than spider‐mite fed protonymphs. Spider mite‐fed N. californicus females attacked protonymphs earlier than did pollen‐fed N. californicus females. Overall, our study suggests that predator and prey diet may exert subtle influences on mutual IGP between bio‐control agents. Matching diets did not intensify IGP between N. californicus and N. cucumeris but predator and prey diets proximately influenced IGP through changes in behaviour and/or stoichiometry.     

Interspecific and Geographic Variation in the Diets of Sympatric Carnivores: Dingoes/Wild Dogs and Red Foxes in South-Eastern Australia

Dingoes/wild dogs (Canis dingo/familiaris) and red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) are widespread carnivores in southern Australia and are controlled to reduce predation on domestic livestock and native fauna. We used the occurrence of food items in 5875 dingo/wild dog scats and 11,569 fox scats to evaluate interspecific and geographic differences in the diets of these species within nine regions of Victoria, south-eastern Australia. The nine regions encompass a wide variety of ecosystems. Diet overlap between dingoes/wild dogs and foxes varied among regions, from low to near complete overlap. The diet of foxes was broader than dingoes/wild dogs in all but three regions, with the former usually containing more insects, reptiles and plant material. By contrast, dingoes/wild dogs more regularly consumed larger mammals, supporting the hypothesis that niche partitioning occurs on the basis of mammalian prey size. The key mammalian food items for dingoes/wild dogs across all regions were black wallaby (Wallabia bicolor), brushtail possum species (Trichosurus spp.), common wombat (Vombatus ursinus), sambar deer (Rusa unicolor), cattle (Bos taurus) and European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus). The key mammalian food items for foxes across all regions were European rabbit, sheep (Ovis aries) and house mouse (Mus musculus). Foxes consumed 6.1 times the number of individuals of threatened Critical Weight Range native mammal species than did dingoes/wild dogs. The occurrence of intraguild predation was asymmetrical; dingoes/wild dogs consumed greater biomass of the smaller fox. The substantial geographic variation in diet indicates that dingoes/wild dogs and foxes alter their diet in accordance with changing food availability. We provide checklists of taxa recorded in the diets of dingoes/wild dogs and foxes as a resource for managers and researchers wishing to understand the potential impacts of policy and management decisions on dingoes/wild dogs, foxes and the food resources they interact with.