Congenital chloride-losing diarrhea causing mutations in the STAS domain result in misfolding and mistrafficking of SLC26A3

Congenital chloride-losing diarrhea (CLD) is a genetic disorder causing watery stool and dehydration. Mutations in SLC26A3 (solute carrier 26 family member 3), which functions as a coupled Cl(-)/HCO(3)(-) exchanger, cause CLD. SLC26A3 is a membrane protein predicted to contain 12 transmembrane-spanning alpha-helices and a C-terminal STAS (sulfate transporters and anti-sigma-factor) domain homologous to the bacterial anti-sigma-factor antagonists. The STAS domain is required for SLC26A3 Cl(-)/HCO(3)(-) exchange function and for the activation of cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator by SLC26A3. Here we investigate the molecular mechanism(s) by which four CLD-causing mutations (DeltaY526/7, I544N, I675/6ins, and G702Tins) in the STAS domain lead to disease. In a heterologous mammalian expression system biochemical, immunohistochemical, and ion transport experiments suggest that the four CLD mutations cause SLC26A3 transporter misfolding and/or mistrafficking. Expression studies with the isolated STAS domain suggest that the I675/6ins and G702Tins mutations disrupt the STAS domain directly, whereas limited proteolysis experiments suggest that the DeltaY526/7 and I544N mutations affect a later step in the folding and/or trafficking pathway. The data suggest that these CLD-causing mutations cause disease by at least two distinct molecular mechanisms, both ultimately leading to loss of functional protein at the plasma membrane.     

Bound to be different: neurotransmitter transporters meet their bacterial cousins

The neurotransmitter transporters belonging to the solute carrier 6 (SLC6) family, including the gamma-aminobutyric acid (GAT), norepinephrine (NET), serotonin (SERT) and dopamine (DAT) transporters are extremely important drug targets of great clinical relevance. These Na+, Cl(-)-dependent transporters primarily function following neurotransmission to reset neuronal signaling by transporting neurotransmitter out of the synapse and back into the pre-synaptic neuron. Recent studies have tracked down an elusive binding site for Cl(-) that facilitates neurotransmitter transport using structural differences evident with bacterial family members (e.g., the Aquifex aeolicus leucine transporter LeuT Aa) that lack Cl(-) dependence. Additionally, the crystal structures of antidepressant-bound LeuT Aa reveals a surprising mode of drug interaction that may have relevance for medication development. The study of sequence and structural divergence between LeuT Aa and human SLC6 family transporters can thus inform us as to how and why neurotransmitter transporters evolved a reliance on extracellular Cl(-) to propel the transport cycle; what residue changes and helical rearrangements give rise to recognition of different substrates; and how drugs such as antidepressants, cocaine, and amphetamines halt (or reverse) the transport process.     

SLC26A7 is a Cl- channel regulated by intracellular pH

Members of the SLC26 transporter family play an essential role in several epithelial functions, as revealed by diseases associated with mutations in members of the family. Several members were shown to function as Cl(-) and HCO(3)(-) transporters that likely play an important role in epithelial Cl(-) absorption and HCO(3)(-) secretion. However, the mechanism of most transporters is not well understood. SLC26A7 is a member of the SLC26 transporter family reported to be expressed in the basolateral membrane of the cortical collecting duct and parietal cells and functions as a coupled Cl(-)/HCO(3)(-) exchanger. In the present work we examined the transport properties of SLC26A7 to determine its transport characteristics and electrogenicity. We found that when expressed in Xenopus oocytes or HEK293 cells SLC26A7 functions as a pH(i)-regulated Cl(-) channel with minimal OH(-)/HCO(3)(-) permeability. Expression of SLC26A7 in oocytes or HEK293 cells generated a Cl(-) current with linear I/V and an instantaneous current that was voltage- and time-independent. Based on measurement of reversal potential the selectivity of SLC26A7 is NO(3)(-)>Cl(-)=Br(-)=I(-)>SO(4)(2-)=Glu(-), although I(-) partially inhibited the current. Incubating the cells with HCO(3)(-) or butyrate acidified the cytosol and increased the selectivity of SLC26A7 for Cl(-). Measurement of membrane potential and pH(i) showed minimal OH(-) and HCO(3)(-) transport by SLC26A7 when the cells were incubated in Cl(-)-containing or Cl(-)-free media. The activity of SLC26A7 was inhibited by all inhibitors of anion transporters tested, 4,4'-diisothiocyanostilbene-2,2'-disulfonic acid, diphenylamine-2-carboxylic acid, and glybenclamide. These findings reveal that SLC26A7 functions as a unique Cl(-) channel that is regulated by intracellular H(+).     

Molecular cloning of SLC26A7, a novel member of the SLC26 sulfate/anion transporter family, from high endothelial venules and kidney

A unique characteristic of endothelial cells from high endothelial venules (HEVEC) in lymphoid organs and chronically inflamed tissues is their capacity to incorporate large amounts of sulfate into sialomucin-type counter-receptors for the lymphocyte homing receptor L-selectin. We have previously shown that HEVEC express two functional classes of sulfate transporters: sodium/sulfate cotransporters and sulfate/anion exchangers. Here, we report the molecular cloning from human HEVEC of a 2.9-kb cDNA encoding SLC26A7, a novel member of the SLC26 (solute carrier 26) sulfate/anion exchanger family. SLC26A7 exhibits 30% identity with three known sulfate transporters from the SLC26 family: SLC26A2 (also known as DTDST), SLC26A1 (also known as SAT1), and SLC26A3 (also known as DRA). Northern blot analysis revealed specific expression of SLC26A7 mRNA in kidney. Alternative splicing and polyadenylation of SLC26A7 pre-mRNA in kidney suggest the existence of two protein isoforms, SLC26A7.1 and SLC26A7.2, differing in their carboxy termini.     

Polyamines and membrane transporters

In recent years, our understanding of the importance of membrane transporters (MTs) in the disposition of and response to drugs has increased significantly. MTs are proteins that regulate the transport of endogenous molecules and xenobiotics across the cell membrane. In mammals, two super-families have been identified: ATP-binding cassette (ABC) and solute carrier (SLC) transporters. There is evidence that MTs might mediate polyamines (PA) transport. PA are ubiquitous polycations which are found in all living cells. In mammalian cells, three major PA are synthesised: putrescine, spermidine and spermine; whilst the decarboxylated arginine (agmatine) is not produced by mammals but is synthesised by plants and bacteria. In addition, research in the PA field suggests that PA are transported into cells via a specific transporter, the polyamine transport system(s) (PTS). Although the PTS has not been fully defined, there is evidence that some of the known MTs might be involved in PA transport. In this mini review, eight SLC transporters will be reviewed and their potential to mediate PA transport in human cells discussed. These transporters are SLC22A1, SLC22A2, SLC22A3, SLC47A1, SLC7A1, SLC3A2, SLC12A8A, and SLC22A16. Preliminary data from our laboratory have revealed that SLC22A1 might be involved in the PA uptake; in addition to one member of ABC superfamily (MDR1 protein) might also mediate the efflux of polyamine like molecules.     

Electroneutral Cation-Chloride Cotransporters in the Central Nervous System

Several members of the cation-chloride cotransporter (solute carrier family 12, SLC12) gene family are expressed within the central nervous system, with one family member, the K+-Cl- cotransporter KCC2, exclusive to neurons. These transporters are best known for their roles in cell volume regulation and epithelial salt transport, but are increasingly receiving attention in neuroscience. In particular, intracellular chloride activity and hence the neuronal response to GABA and glycine appears to be determined by a balance between chloride efflux and influx through KCC2 and the Na+-K+-2Cl- cotransporter NKCC1, respectively. This relationship has important implications for neuronal development, sensory perception, neuronal excitability, and the response to neuronal injury. Finally, the association between loss of function in the K+-Cl- cotransporter KCC3, with a severe peripheral neuropathy associated with agenesis of the corpus callosum, has revealed an unexpected role for K+-Cl- cotransport in the development and/or maintenance of both the central and peripheral nervous systems.     

Glutamate and monoamine transporters: new visions of form and function

Neurotransmitters are rapidly removed from the extracellular space primarily through the actions of plasma membrane transporters. This uptake process is not only essential in the termination of neurotransmission but also serves to replenish intracellular levels of transmitter for further release. Neurotransmitter transporters couple the inward movement of substrate to the movement of Na(+) down a concentration gradient and, in addition to their transport function, some carriers also display channel-like activities. Five Na(+)/K(+)-dependent glutamate transporter subtypes belong to the solute carrier 1 (SLC1) family and a second family, SLC6, encompasses the Na(+)/Cl(-)-dependent transporters for dopamine, 5-hydroxytryptamine (serotonin), noradrenaline, GABA and glycine. Recent advances, including high-resolution structures from both families, are now providing new insights into the molecular determinants that contribute to substrate translocation and ion channel activities. Other influential studies have explored how cellular regulatory mechanisms modulate transporter function, and how the different functions of the carrier shape the patterns of neurotransmitter signaling. This review focuses on recent studies of glutamate and monoamine transporters as prototypes of the two carrier families.     

The SLC6 orphans are forming a family of amino acid transporters

Transporters in the human genome are grouped in solute carrier families (SLC). The SLC6 family is one of the biggest transporter families in the human genome comprising 20 members. It is usually referred to as the neurotransmitter transporter family because its founding members encode transporters for the neurotransmitters GABA, noradrenaline, serotonin and dopamine. The family also includes a number of 'orphan' transporters, the function of which has remained elusive until recently. Identification of the broadly specific neutral amino acid transporter SLC6A19 (also called B(0)AT1) suggested that all orphan transporters may in fact be amino acid transporters. This was subsequently confirmed by the identification of SLC6A20 as the long-sought IMINO system, a proline transporter found in kidney, intestine and brain. Very recently, SLC6A15 was identified as the neutral amino acid transporter B(0)AT2. All amino acid transporters appear to cotransport only 1Na(+) together with the amino acid substrate. Both, B(0)AT1 and B(0)AT2 are chloride independent, whereas IMINO is chloride dependent. The amino acid transporters of the SLC6 family are functionally and sequence related to the recently crystallized leucine transporter from Aquifex aeolicus. The structure elegantly explains many of the mechanistic features of the SLC6 amino acid transporters.     

Mapping of equine potassium chloride co-transporter (SLC12A4) and amino acid transporter (SLC7A10) and preliminary studies on associations between SNPs from SLC12A4, SLC7A10 and SLC7A9 and osmotic fragility of erythrocytes

Consensus DNA sequences from human, mouse and/or rat were used to design oligonucleotide primers for equine homologues of exons 16, 17 and 20-23 of potassium chloride co-transporter (SLC12A4) and exons 10, 11 and 3, 4, respectively, for two amino acid transporters (SLC7A10 and SLC7A9). DNA sequences of the PCR products showed high sequence identity to these regions. Equine BAC clones were obtained for SLC12A4 and SLC7A10 and mapped to equine chromosomes ECA3p13 and ECA10p15, respectively, by fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH). Several single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP) were found. Substitutions of A/G were found within exon 17 of SLC12A4, within intron 11 of SLC7A10 and within intron 3 of SLC7A9. The SNP associated with SLC7A10 and SLC7A9 were sufficiently polymorphic to investigate associations with erythrocyte fragility among a group of 20 thoroughbred horses. A non-parametric rank-sum test showed a weak association between erythrocyte fragility and the SNP associated with SLC7A10 (P < 0.05).     

SLC41A2 encodes a plasma-membrane Mg2+ transporter

The TRPM7 (transient receptor potential melastatin 7) ion channel has been implicated in the uptake of Mg2+ into vertebrate cells, as elimination of TRPM7 expression through gene targeting in DT40 B-lymphocytes renders them unable to grow in the absence of supplemental Mg2+. However, a residual capacity of TRPM7-deficient cells to accumulate Mg2+ and proliferate when provided with supplemental Mg2+ suggests the existence of Mg2+ uptake mechanism(s) other than TRPM7. Evaluation of the expression of several members of the SLC41 (solute carrier family 41) family, which exhibit homology with the MgtE class of prokaryotic putative bivalent-cation transporters, demonstrated that one, SLC41A2 (solute carrier family 41 member 2), is expressed in both wild-type and TRPM7-deficient DT40 cells. Characterization of heterologously expressed SLC41A2 protein indicated that it is a plasma-membrane protein with an N-terminus-outside/C-terminus-inside 11-TM (transmembrane)-span topology, consistent with its functioning as a trans-plasma-membrane transporter. In contrast with a previous report of ion-channel activity associated with SLC41A2 expression in oocytes, investigation of whole cell currents in SLC41A2-expressing DT40 cells revealed no novel currents of any type associated with SLC41A2 expression. However, expression of SLC41A2 in TRPM7-deficient cells under the control of a doxycycline-inducible promoter was able to conditionally enhance their net uptake of 26Mg2+ and conditionally and dose-dependently provide them with the capacity to grow in the absence of supplemental Mg2+, observations strongly supporting a model whereby SLC41A2 directly mediates trans-plasma-membrane Mg2+ transport. Overall, our results suggest that SLC41A2 functions as a plasma-membrane Mg2+ transporter in vertebrate cells.     

SLC7 amino acid transporters of the yellow fever mosquito Aedes aegypti and their role in fat body TOR signaling and reproduction

BackgroundAn important function of the fat body in adult female mosquitoes is the conversion of blood meal derived amino acids (AA) into massive amounts of yolk protein precursors. A highly efficient transport mechanism for AAs across the plasma membrane of the fat body trophocytes is essential in order to deliver building blocks for the rapid synthesis of large amounts of these proteins. This mechanism consists in part of AA transporter proteins from the solute carrier family. These transporters have dual function; they function as transporters and participate in the nutrient signal transduction pathway that is activated in the fat body after a blood meal. In this study we focused on the solute carrier 7 family (SLC7), a family of AA transporters present in all metazoans that includes members with strong substrate specificity for cationic AAs.Methodology/principal findingsWe identified 11 putative SLC7 transporters in the genome sequence of Aedes aegypti. Phylogenetic analysis puts five of these in the cationic AA transporter subfamily (CAT) and six in the heterodimeric AA transporter (HAT) subfamily. All 11 A. aegypti SLC7 genes are expressed in adult females. Expression profiles are dynamic after a blood meal. We knocked down six fat body-expressed SLC7 transporters using RNAi and found that these ‘knockdowns’ reduced AA-induced TOR signaling. We also determined the effect these knockdowns had on the number of eggs deposited following a blood meal.Conclusions/significanceOur analysis stresses the importance of SLC7 transporters in TOR signaling pathway and mosquito reproduction.     

Expression profiling of the solute carrier gene family in chicken intestine from the late embryonic to early post-hatch stages

Intestinal development during late embryogenesis and early post-hatch has a long-term influence on digestive and absorptive capacity in chickens. The objective of this research was to obtain a global view of intestinal solute carrier (SLC) gene family member expression from late embryogenesis until 2 weeks post-hatch with a focus on SLC genes involved in uptake of sugars and amino acids. Small intestine samples from male chicks were collected on embryonic days 18 (E18) and 20 (E20), day of hatch and days 1, 3, 7 and 14 post-hatch. The expression profiles of 162 SLC genes belonging to 41 SLC families were determined using Affymetrix chicken genome microarrays. The majority of SLC genes showed little or no difference in level of expression during E18–D14. A number of well-known intestinal transporters were upregulated between E18 and D14 including the amino acid transporters rBAT , y ⁺ LAT-2 and EAAT3 , the peptide transporter PepT1 and the sugar transporters SGLT1 , GLUT2 and GLUT5 . The amino acid transporters CAT-1 and CAT-2 were downregulated. In addition, several glucose and amino acid transporters that are novel to our understanding of nutrient absorption in the chicken intestine were discovered through the arrays ( SGLT6 , SNAT1 , SNAT2 and AST ). These results represent a comprehensive characterization of the expression profiles of the SLC family of genes at different stages of development in the chicken intestine and lay the ground work for future nutritional studies.     

Carnitine/xenobiotics transporters in the human mammary gland epithelia, MCF12A

The barrier function of the human mammary gland collapses if challenged with cationic drugs, causing their accumulation in milk. However, underlying molecular mechanisms are not well understood. To gain insight into the mechanism, we characterized transport of organic cations in the MCF12A human mammary gland epithelial cells, using carnitine and tetraethylammonium (TEA) as representative nutrient and xenobiotics probes, respectively. Our results show that the mammary gland cells express mRNA and proteins of human (h) novel organic cation transporters (OCTN) 1 and hOCTN2 (a Na+-dependent carnitine carrier with Na+-independent xenobiotics transport function), which belong to the solute carrier superfamily (SLC) of transporters. Other SLC OCTs such as hOCT1 and extraneuronal monoamine transporter (EMT)/hOCT3 are also expressed at mRNA levels, but hOCT2 was undetectable. We further showed mRNA expression of ATB0+ (an amino acid transporter with a Na+/Cl(-)-dependent carnitine transport activity), and Fly-like putative transporter 2/OCT6 (a splice variant of carnitine transporter 2: a testis-specific Na+-dependent carnitine transporter). TEA uptake was pH dependent. Carnitine uptake was dependent on Na+, and partly on Cl-, compatible with hOCTN2 and ATB0+ function. Modeling analyses predicted multiplicity of the uptake mechanisms with the high-affinity systems characterized by K(m) of 5.1 microM for carnitine and 1.6 mM for TEA, apparently similar to the reported hOCTN2 parameter for carnitine, and that of EMT/hOCT3 for TEA. Verapamil, cimetidine, carbamazepine, quinidine, and desipramine inhibited the carnitine uptake but required supratherapeutic concentrations, suggesting robustness of the carnitine uptake systems against xenobiotic challenge. Our findings suggest functional roles of a network of multiple SLC organic cation/nutrient transporters in human mammary gland drug transfer.     

SLC7A2 deficiency promotes hepatocellular carcinoma progression by enhancing recruitment of myeloid-derived suppressors cells

The main reason for poor prognosis in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) patients is high metastasis and recurrence. Cancer progression depends on a tumor-supportive microenvironment. Therefore, illustrating the mechanisms of tumor immunity in underlying HCC metastasis is essential. Here, we report a novel role of solute carrier family 7 member 2 (SLC7A2), a member of the solute carrier family, in HCC metastasis. The reduction of SLC7A2 was an independent and significant risk factor for the survival of HCC patients. Upregulation of SLC7A2 decreased HCC invasion and metastasis, whereas downregulation of SLC7A2 promoted HCC invasion and metastasis. We further found that deficient SLC7A2 medicated the upregulation of CXCL1 through PI3K/Akt/NF-kκB pathway to recruit myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs), exerting tumor immunosuppressive effect. Moreover, we found that G9a-mediated di-methylation of H3K9 (H3K9me2) silenced the expression of SLC7A2 to suppress HCC metastasis and immune escape. In conclusion, G9a-mediated silencing of SLC7A2 exerts unexpected functions in cancer metastasis by fostering a tumor-supportive microenvironment through CXCL1 secretion and MDSCs recruitment. Thus, SLC7A2 may provide new mechanistic insight into the cancer-promoting property of MDSCs.Subject terms: Cancer microenvironment, Cancer immunotherapy, Metastasis     

Structural basis and mechanism of the inhibition of the type-3 copper protein tyrosinase from Streptomyces antibioticus by halide ions

The inhibition of the type-3 copper enzyme tyrosinase by halide ions was studied by kinetic and paramagnetic (1)H NMR methods. All halides are inhibitors in the conversion of l-3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine (l-DOPA) with apparent inhibition constants that follow the order I(-) < F(-) < Cl(-) < Br(-) at pH 6.80. The results show that the inhibition arises from the interaction of halide with both the oxidized (affinity F(-) > Cl(-) > Br(-) > I(-)) and reduced (affinity I(-) > Br(-) > Cl(-) > F(-)) enzyme. The paramagnetic (1)H NMR of the oxidized enzyme complexed with the halides is consistent with a direct interaction of halide with the type-3 site and shows that the (Cu-His(3))(2) coordination occurs in all halide-bound species. It is surmised that halides bridge both of the copper ions in the active site. Fluoride and chloride are shown to bind only to the low pH form of oxidized tyrosinase, explaining the strong pH dependence of the inhibition by these ions. We further show that p-toluic acid and the bidentate transition state analogue, Kojic acid, displace chloride from the oxidized active site, whereas the monodentate substrate analogue, p-nitrophenol, forms a ternary complex with the enzyme and the chloride ion. On the basis of the experimental results, a model is formulated for the inhibitor action and for the reaction of diphenols with the oxidized enzyme.     

A molecular mechanism for aberrant CFTR-dependent HCO(3)(-) transport in cystic fibrosis

Aberrant HCO(3)(-) transport is a hallmark of cystic fibrosis (CF) and is associated with aberrant Cl(-)-dependent HCO(3)(-) transport by the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR). We show here that HCO(3)(-) current by CFTR cannot account for CFTR-activated HCO(3)(-) transport and that CFTR does not activate AE1-AE4. In contrast, CFTR markedly activates Cl(-) and OH(-)/HCO(3)(-) transport by members of the SLC26 family DRA, SLC26A6 and pendrin. Most notably, the SLC26s are electrogenic transporters with isoform-specific stoichiometries. DRA activity occurred at a Cl(-)/HCO(3)(-) ratio > or =2. SLC26A6 activity is voltage regulated and occurred at HCO(3)(-)/Cl(-) > or =2. The physiological significance of these findings is demonstrated by interaction of CFTR and DRA in the mouse pancreas and an altered activation of DRA by the R117H and G551D mutants of CFTR. These findings provide a molecular mechanism for epithelial HCO(3)(-) transport (one SLC26 transporter-electrogenic transport; two SLC26 transporters with opposite stoichiometry in the same membrane domain-electroneutral transport), the CF-associated aberrant HCO(3)(-) transport, and reveal a new function of CFTR with clinical implications for CF and congenital chloride diarrhea.     

Hsa_circ_0087354通过hsa-miR-199-3p/SLC7A11调节MG-63细胞增殖及氧化还原状态

环状RNA(circular RNAs, circRNAs)是一类新型非编码RNA。已有研究表明,其在细胞氧化还原反应中发挥重要作用。在本文前期研究中,发现通过real-time PCR检测,hsa_circ_0087354与细胞的氧化还原状态密切相关。过表达hsa_circ_0087354后,活性氧1(reactive oxygen species1,ROS1)基因表达显著下降(P＜0.01),超氧化物歧化酶1(surperoxide dismutase1,SOD1)表达显著升高(P＜0.05);细胞内SOD和谷胱甘肽过氧化物酶(glutathione peroxidase,GPx)活性以及谷胱甘肽(glutathione,GSH)浓度显著升高(P＜0.01),细胞增殖能力增强(P＜0.05)。生物信息学分析预测,hsa-miR-199-3p与hsa_circ_0087354和溶质载体家族7成员11(solute carrier family 7 member 11,SLC7A11)存在结合位点,可能存在靶向调控关系。双荧光素酶报告基因结果证实了hsa-miR-199-3p与hsa_circ_0087354和SLC7A11之间的靶向调控关系。构建过表达hsa_circ_0087354质粒和ctrl质粒,合成hsa-miR-199a-3p、hsa-miR-199b-3p 和hsa-miR-NC mimics。通过Real-time PCR分析发现,转染hsa_circ_0087354后,hsa-miR-199-3p表达显著降低(P＜0.01),SLC7A11表达显著升高(P＜0.05)。转染hsa-miR-199-3p后,SLC7A11基因表达显著下降(P＜0.001),细胞内SOD和GPx活性以及GSH浓度显著降低(P＜0.01),细胞增殖能力下降(P＜0.05)。研究结果表明,hsa_circ_0087354通过吸附hsa-miR-199-3p,增强SLC7A11表达,促进氧化应激MG-63细胞增殖,降低氧化应激水平。     

Modification of Proteinase Inhibitor II in Adzuki Beans during Germination

We investigated the effects of compounds isolated from a methanolic extract of rose hips on melanin biosynthesis in B16 mouse melanoma cells and the possible mechanisms responsible for the inhibition of melanin biosynthesis. We found that, among the isolated compounds, quercetin was a particularly potent melanogenesis inhibitor. To reveal the mechanism for this inhibition, the effects on tyrosinase of B16 mouse melanoma were measured. Quercetin decreased the intracellular tyrosinase activity as well as the tyrosinase activity in a cell culture-free system. We also examined the cellular level of tyrosinase protein and found that quercetin dose-dependently inhibited tyrosinase protein expression. We consider from these results that the inhibition of melanogenesis by quercetin was due to the inhibition of both tyrosinase activity and of the protein expression.