Longitudinal Analysis of the Eco‐Design Management Standardization Process in Furniture Companies

This article discusses how eco‐design management standards have been adopted and the environmental and economic results that have been obtained by the Spanish furniture manufacturers. This is precisely the industry sector in Spain where the dissemination of eco‐design standards has been most important. Using multiple case‐study methodology, the research has shown that, in three companies, more than 90% of the environmental impact of the companies’ products occurs within the manufacturing phase. Companies have implemented tools for life cycle assessment with eco‐indicators values that allow them to assess complex products and evaluate their significant environmental impacts at each stage. The environmental strategies of these companies are based on the continuous improvement of the internal processes and the review and monitoring of their activities. In this approach, the proper choice of materials and the environmental management of the supply chain are the main problems for companies. The outcomes achieved by the companies included some improvements, such as a greater control of product management and a reduction in operating costs, that have allowed them to obtain competitive advantages. Moreover, the adoption of standard management has enabled the companies to drive innovation of products, improve the image of companies and their products, significantly reduce the environmental impact of their products, and adapt to new, more demanding environmental laws and regulations.     

Integrating life cycle costs and environmental impacts of composite rail car-bodies for a Korean train

Background, aim, and scope  A coupled Life Cycle Costing and life cycle assessment has been performed for car-bodies of the Korean Tilting Train eXpress (TTX) project using European and Korean databases, with the objective of assessing environmental and cost performance to aid materials and process selection. More specifically, the potential of polymer composite car-body structures for the Korean Tilting Train eXpress (TTX) has been investigated. Materials and methods  This assessment includes the cost of both carriage manufacturing and use phases, coupled with the life cycle environmental impacts of all stages from raw material production, through carriage manufacture and use, to end-of-life scenarios. Metallic carriages were compared with two composite options: hybrid steel-composite and full-composite carriages. The total planned production for this regional Korean train was 440 cars, with an annual production volume of 80 cars. Results and discussion  The coupled analyses were used to generate plots of cost versus energy consumption and environmental impacts. The results show that the raw material and manufacturing phase costs are approximately half of the total life cycle costs, whilst their environmental impact is relatively insignificant (3–8%). The use phase of the car-body has the largest environmental impact for all scenarios, with near negligible contributions from the other phases. Since steel rail carriages weigh more (27–51%), the use phase cost is correspondingly higher, resulting in both the greatest environmental impact and the highest life cycle cost. Compared to the steel scenario, the hybrid composite variant has a lower life cycle cost (16%) and a lower environmental impact (26%). Though the full composite rail carriage may have the highest manufacturing cost, it results in the lowest total life cycle costs and lowest environmental impacts. Conclusions and recommendations  This coupled cost and life cycle assessment showed that the full composite variant was the optimum solution. This case study showed that coupling of technical cost models with life cycle assessment offers an efficient route to accurately evaluate economic and environmental performance in a consistent way.     

Construction Matters: Comparing Environmental Impacts of Building Modular and Conventional Homes in the United States

Modular construction practices are used in many countries as an alternative to conventional on‐site construction for residential homes. While modular home construction has certain advantages in terms of material and time efficiency, it requires a different infrastructure than conventional home construction, and the overall environmental trade‐offs between the two methods have been unclear. This study uses life cycle assessment to quantify the environmental impacts of constructing a typical residential home using the two methods, based on data from several modular construction companies and conventional homebuilders. The study includes impacts from material production and transport, off‐site and on‐site energy use, worker transport, and waste management. For all categories considered, the average impacts of building the home are less for modular construction than for conventional construction, although these averages obscure significant variation among the individual projects and companies.     

Environmental Assessment of Single‐Walled Carbon Nanotube Processes

The environmental assessment of nanomanufacturing during the initial process design phase should lead to the development of competitive, safe, and environmentally responsible engineering and commercialization. Given the potential benefits and concerns regarding the use of single‐walled carbon nanotubes (SWNTs), three SWNT production processes have been investigated to assess their associated environmental impacts. These processes include arc ablation (arc), chemical vapor deposition (CVD), and high‐pressure carbon monoxide (HiPco). Without consideration of the currently unknown impacts of SWNT dispersion or other health impacts, life cycle assessment (LCA) methodology is used to analyze the environmental impact and provide a baseline for the environmental footprint of each manufacturing process. Although the technical attributes of the product resulting from each process may not be fully comparable, this study presents comparisons that show that the life cycle impacts are dominated by energy, specifically the electricity used in production. Under base case yield conditions, HiPco shows the lowest environmental impact, while the arc process has the lowest impact under best case yield conditions.     

Ecosystem Services in Life Cycle Assessment while Encouraging Techno‐Ecological Synergies

Life cycle assessment (LCA) has enabled consideration of environmental impacts beyond the narrow boundary of traditional engineering methods. This reduces the chance of shifting impacts outside the system boundary. However, sustainability also requires that supporting ecosystems are not adversely affected and remain capable of providing goods and services for supporting human activities. Conventional LCA does not account for this role of nature, and its metrics are best for comparing alternatives. These relative metrics do not provide information about absolute environmental sustainability, which requires comparison between the demand and supply of ecosystem services (ES). Techno‐ecological synergy (TES) is a framework to account for ES, and has been demonstrated by application to systems such as buildings and manufacturing activities that have narrow system boundaries. This article develops an approach for techno‐ecological synergy in life cycle assessment (TES‐LCA) by expanding the steps in conventional LCA to incorporate the demand and supply of ecosystem goods and services at multiple spatial scales. This enables calculation of absolute environmental sustainability metrics, and helps identify opportunities for improving a life cycle not just by reducing impacts, but also by restoring and protecting ecosystems. TES‐LCA of a biofuel life cycle demonstrates this approach by considering the ES of carbon sequestration, air quality regulation, and water provisioning. Results show that for the carbon sequestration ecosystem service, farming can be locally sustainable but unsustainable at the global or serviceshed scale. Air quality regulation is unsustainable at all scales, while water provisioning is sustainable at all scales for this study in the eastern part of the United States.     

An Approach for Calculating the Environmental External Costs of the Belgian Building Sector

This article describes an approach developed to estimate the environmental external costs of the Belgian building sector. Several existing methods and related data sets for determining the monetary value of environmental impacts were reviewed and compared in light of their relevance to an impact assessment of the construction sector. This study concludes that the methods available consider different impacts and differ substantially in monetary values for identical impacts. A harmonized and transparent method is recommended to improve the feasibility and acceptance of internalizing external costs; agreement on the impacts to be assessed and their external costs based on current insights is important. Here, a new method is proposed for a life cycle impact assessment‐based valuation of environmental external costs for application to the Belgian building sector. To enable a comprehensive assessment, it became clear that solely considering “key” pollutants is insufficient. Although this article focuses on the development and not on the implementation of the method proposed, implementation revealed that the life cycle environmental external cost of new buildings (meeting current insulation standards or better) is relatively small compared to the life cycle financial cost.     

Analyzing the Environmental Benefits of Industrial Symbiosis

Studies of industrial symbiosis (IS) focus on the physical flows of materials and energy in local industrial systems. In an ideal IS, waste material and energy are shared or exchanged among the actors of the system, thereby reducing the consumption of virgin material and energy inputs, and likewise the generation of waste and emissions. In this study, the environmental impacts of an industrial ecosystem centered around a pulp and paper mill and operating as an IS are analyzed using life cycle assessment (LCA). The system is compared with two hypothetical reference systems in which the actors would operate in isolation. Moreover, the system is analyzed further in order to identify possibilities for additional links between the actors. The results show that of the total life cycle impacts of the system, upstream processes made the greatest overall contribution to the results. Comparison with stand‐alone production shows that in the case studied, the industrial symbiosis results in modest improvements, 5% to 20% in most impact categories, in the overall environmental impacts of the system. Most of the benefits occur upstream through heat and electricity production for the local town. All in all it is recommended that when the environmental impacts of industrial symbiosis are assessed, the impacts occurring upstream should also be studied, not only the impacts within the ecosystem.     

Life cycle cost analysis of the UK housing stock

Purpose

The aim of the paper is to estimate life cycle costs (LCC) of the current housing stock in the UK as part of sustainability assessment of the residential construction sector. This is carried out by first estimating the life cycle costs of individual houses considering detached, semi-detached and terraced homes. These results are then extrapolated to the UK housing stock consisting of seven million each of semi-detached and terraced houses and four million of detached houses. A brief discussion of life cycle environmental impacts is also included to help identify improvement opportunities for both costs and impacts.

Methods

The life cycle costing methodology followed in the study is congruent with the life cycle assessment methodology. The system boundary for the study is from ‘cradle to grave’, including all activities from extraction and manufacture of construction materials to construction and use of the house to its demolition. The functional unit is defined as the construction and occupation of a house in the UK over the lifetime of 50 years.

Results and discussion

The total life cycle costs are estimated at £247,000 for the detached house, £192,000 for the semi-detached and £142,000 for the terraced house. The running costs in the use stage contribute 52 % to the total life cycle costs of which half is from energy use. The construction costs contribute 35 % to the total LCC with the walls and the roof being the most expensive items. The remaining 13 % of the costs are incurred at the end of life of the house which are largely (85 %) due to the cost of labour for demolition. Recovery of end-of-life materials has a limited potential to reduce the overall life cycle costs of a house. The life cycle costs of the whole housing stock are estimated at £67 billion per year or £3,360 billion over the 50-year lifetime.

Conclusions

The existing housing stock in the UK is facing a number of challenges that will need to be addressed in the near future. These include improving energy efficiency and reducing the dependency on fossil fuels to reduce energy demand, fuel poverty and environmental impacts. Furthermore, the disparity between the construction costs and house market prices will need to be addressed to ensure that access to housing and house ownership do not become the privilege of a few.     

Life Cycle Assessment of Offshore Wind Farm Siting: Effects of Locational Factors,Lake Depth,and Distance from Shore

According to previous studies, the life cycle energy intensity of an offshore wind farm (OWF) varies between 0.03 and 0.13 megawatt‐hours (MWh) of primary energy for each MWh of electricity generated. The variation in these life cycle energy intensity studies, after normalizing for capacity factor and life span, is significantly affected by OWF location because of geographical properties, namely, wind speed and water depth. To improve OWF siting, this study investigates how an OWF's distance from shore and geographical location impacts its environmental benefit. A process‐based life cycle assessment is conducted to compare 20 OWF siting scenarios in Michigan's Great Lakes for their cumulative fossil energy demand, global warming potential, and acidification potential. Each scenario (four lake locations at five offshore distances) has unique foundation, transmission, installation, and operational requirements based on site characteristics. The results demonstrate that the cumulative environmental burden from an OWF is most significantly affected by (1) water depth, (2) distance from shore, and (3) distance to power grid, in descending order of importance, if all other site‐relevant variables are held constant. The results also show that when OWFs are sited further offshore, the benefit of increased wind energy generation does not necessarily outweigh the increase in negative environmental impacts. This suggests that siting OWF nearer to shore may result in a better life cycle environmental performance. Finally, we demonstrate how much an OWF's environmental burdens can be reduced if the OWF system is either recycled, transported a shorter distance, or manufactured in a region with a high degree of renewable energy on the grid.     

Entity Normalization in Life Cycle Assessment: Hybrid Schemes Applied to a Transportation Agency Case Study

Government agencies, companies, and other entities are using environmental assessments, like life cycle assessment (LCA), as an input to decision‐making processes. Communicating the esoteric results of an LCA to these decision makers can present challenges, and interpretation aids are commonly provided to increase understanding. One such method is normalizing results as a means of providing context for interpreting magnitudes of environmental impacts. Normalization is mostly carried out by relating the environmental impacts of a product (or process) under study to those of another product or a spatial reference area (e.g., the United States). This research is based on the idea that decision makers might also benefit from normalization that considers comparisons to their entity's (agency, company, organization, etc.) total impacts to provide additional meaning and aid in comprehension. Two hybrid normalization schemes have been developed, which include aspects of normalization to both spatially based and entity‐based impacts. These have been named entity‐overlaid and entity‐accentuated normalization, and the schemes allow for performance‐based planning or emphasizing environmental impact types that are most relevant to an entity's operational profile, respectively. A hypothetical case study is presented to demonstrate these schemes, which uses environmental data from a U.S. transportation agency as the basis for entity normalization factors. Results of this case study illustrate how entity‐related references may be developed, and how this additional information may enhance the presentation of LCA results using the hybrid normalization schemes.     

Life cycle thinking in small and medium enterprises: the results of research on the implementation of life cycle tools in Polish SMEs—Part 3: LCC-related aspects

Purpose

This article is the third of a series of articles presenting the results of research on the implementation of life cycle management tools in small- and medium-sized companies in Poland. The purpose of the three-part series of articles is to present the results of research on the implementation of life cycle tools in Polish small and medium enterprises (SMEs). This work is part of a project financed by the Polish Agency for Enterprise Development (PAED) which began in February 2011. It was carried out by the Wielkopolska Quality Institute—a business environment institution associated with the Polish Centre for LCA (PCLCA). The main practical objective of the project was to support SMEs in their business development, e.g. by expanding their horizons beyond the sphere of their operation and identifying new areas for the improvement and promotion of the products and services on offer. The specific objective of the analysis involving the assessment of life-cycle costs of products and services was an attempt to answer the question to determine whether the assessment carried out in accordance with the life-cycle cost (LCC) methodology is a good tool for cost management in this type of business. Part 3 describes the results of studies on the assessment of the implementation of LCC in SMEs conducted in 50 companies involved in the project.

Methods

In order to assess the effectiveness of the project and the effectiveness of the implementation of LCA and LCC, a survey was conducted of small- and medium-sized businesses where the implementation works had been fully completed. In total, 50 organisations agreed to participate in the LCC survey (while 46 in the LCA—part 2 paper), which was 71 % of all the companies where the LCA and LCC studies had been carried out within the project. The survey was conducted using individual in-depth interviews. Questions to the representatives of the companies referred both to aspects of their operating in the market (characteristics of a company, its market share, management systems, environmental policy, suppliers, clients) and the implementation of their environmental service (assessment of its effectiveness, motivation, difficulties in its implementation), as well as opinions on the potential applications of LCA in their current operations.

Results and discussion

The experience and observations of LCC experts resulting from their cooperation with the analysed organisations are largely supported by the results of the survey. The overall impression gained from the project is that the small- and medium-sized enterprises considered have a problem with accepting and understanding the life-cycle perspective, and show limited interest in taking liability for environmental and cost aspects beyond the mandatory legal standards and boundaries of their business operations. Nevertheless, the LCC analyses aroused much bigger interest among the companies than the environmental due to the fact that the cost aspects in companies undergoing normal development are seen as an important source of information about the structure of the costs generated with respect to the products or services provided. It is important to note that a very important factor encouraging businesses to join the studies was the fact that they were cost-free. Moreover, the planned introduction of a new product onto the market was the argument that often influenced the decision to implement the LCC. The survey has shown that companies rarely perform cost analyses including all stages of the life cycle of a product or service. Although the awareness of the importance of conducting economic researches for the entire life cycle of a product or service is great, it turned out to be problematic to unambiguously define the practical use of such an analysis, at least at the present stage of development of the companies surveyed.

Conclusions

The results obtained in the survey indicate that in the case of simple products, with a short life cycle, complex cost analyses may seem less useful. For more complex products or services, with long periods of use, high reliability required, and high operating costs, the analyses presented are useful tools that increase the economic efficiency of the projects implemented. It appears that from the point of view of polish SMEs, the usefulness of an LCA is seen mainly from the angle of opportunities for cost reduction (preferably in business) and increased sales (marketing). A good solution would be to conduct relatively simple, but integrated LCA/LCC analyses in SMEs so that the companies would clearly see the economic effects of the proposed environmental improvements.     

Integrating environmental and economic life cycle analysis in product development: a material selection case study

Purpose

Achieving sustainability by rethinking products, services and strategies is an enormous challenge currently laid upon the economic sector, in which materials selection plays a critical role. In this context, the present work describes an environmental and economic life cycle analysis of a structural product, comparing two possible material alternatives. The product chosen is a storage tank, presently manufactured in stainless steel (SST) or in a glass fibre reinforced polymer composite (CST). The overall goal of the study is to identify environmental and economic strong and weak points related to the life cycle of the two material alternatives. The consequential win–win or trade-off situations will be identified via a life cycle assessment/life cycle costing (LCA/LCC) integrated model.

Methods

The LCA/LCC integrated model used consists in applying the LCA methodology to the product system, incorporating, in parallel, its results into the LCC study, namely those of the life cycle inventory and the life cycle impact assessment.

Results and discussion

In both the SST and CST systems, the most significant life cycle phase is the raw materials production, in which the most significant environmental burdens correspond to the Fossil fuels and Respiratory inorganics categories. The LCA/LCC integrated analysis shows that the CST has globally a preferable environmental and economic profile, as its impacts are lower than those of the SST in all life cycle stages. Both the internal and external costs are lower, the former resulting mainly from the composite material being significantly less expensive than stainless steel. This therefore represents a full win–win situation. As a consequence, the study clearly indicates that using a thermoset composite material to manufacture storage tanks is environmentally and economically desirable. However, it was also evident that the environmental performance of the CST could be improved by altering its end-of-life stage.

Conclusions

The results of the present work provide enlightening insights into the synergies between the environmental and the economic performance of a structural product made with alternative materials. Furthermore, they provide conclusive evidence to support the integration of environmental and economic life cycle analysis in the product development processes of a manufacturing company or, in some cases, even in its procurement practices.     

Life cycle management of energy-consuming products in companies using IO-LCA

Background, aim, and scope

Today, the effective integration of life cycle thinking into existing business routines is argued to be the most critical step for more sustainable business models. The study tests the suitability of an input–output life cycle assessment (IO-LCA) approach in screening life cycle impacts of energy-using products in companies. It estimates the life cycle impacts of three products and assesses the suitability of such approach in a company environment.

Materials and methods

The multiple case studies evaluate the suitability of an IO-LCA method in a company environment. A comprehensive life cycle cost and impact study of three product systems (building ventilation system, information and communication technology (ICT) network product, and welding machine) is conducted and the life cycle phases with highest economical and environmental contribution are determined. Scenario analysis is performed in order to assess the sensitivity of the results to major changes in the studied systems. Finally, the usability of the IO-LCA approach for environmental evaluations in companies is assessed by collecting data on workload and interviewing the participating workers and managers.

Results

The results showed that the use phase with operating energy was environmentally important in all evaluated energy-using products. However, only in one case (ICT network product) the use was the single most significant life cycle phase. In two other cases, the sourcing was equally important. The results also indicated that the IO-LCA approach is much easier to adapt by current management of companies because it automatically links life cycle costs to environmental indicators and, by order of magnitude, reduces the workload in companies.

Discussion

It appears that the IO-LCA approach can be used to screen environmentally significant life cycle phases of energy-using products in companies by utilizing readily available accounting or other documented data. The IO-LCA approach produced comparable results with the ones published in traditional process-based LCA literature. In addition to the main results, some practical benefits of using the IO-LCA could also be suggested: the approach was very fast to use and would thus allow an easier adoption of environmental evaluations in companies as well as wider environmental testing of products in early conceptual design phase.

Conclusions

The results indicated that the IO-LCA approach could clearly offer added value to the environmental management of companies. The IO-LCA was found to provide a very fast access to the key life cycle characteristics of products. Similarly, it offered practical means to integrate life cycle thinking into existing business routines and to activate the decision makers in companies by giving them easily comprehendible results.

Recommendations and perspectives

The results would suggest that similar environmental IO tables, besides the US ones used here, would have value and should be collected for other major geographical and economical regions. The tables would enable a much larger share of companies to manage their environmental issues. It also seems that, because the user profile is so dominant in the case of energy-using products, more studies, both theoretical (How to valuate the future behavior in environmental studies?) and empirical (What really creates value for users?), should focus on the behavior of users.

     

Precaution in Practice

Voluntary initiatives by industry have been frequently proposed as one of the most promising ways to reduce potential negative impacts on human health and the environment from nanomaterials. In this study, we examined the industrial perceptions, internal procedures, and performance of the nanomaterial industry. We conducted a written survey of 40 companies in Switzerland and Germany. Most companies replied that nanoparticulate materials (NPMs) should be subject to some kind of regulation, but industry did not convey a clear opinion as to who should be responsible for managing the potential environmental health impacts or how to regulate NPMs throughout their life cycle. If NPM risks were to be identified, most of the companies surveyed do not have standardized procedures for changing production technology, substituting inputs, redesigning processes, or reformulating final products to reduce or eliminate risks of NPMs. However, a majority of the survey respondents found their existing routines regarding these procedures to be sufficient.     

Insights on the Use of Hybrid Life Cycle Assessment for Environmental Footprinting

Establishing a comprehensive environmental footprint that indicates resource use and environmental release hotspots in both direct and indirect operations can help companies formulate impact reduction strategies as part of overall sustainability efforts. Life cycle assessment (LCA) is a useful approach for achieving these objectives. For most companies, financial data are more readily available than material and energy quantities, which suggests a hybrid LCA approach that emphasizes use of economic input‐output (EIO) LCA and process‐based energy and material flow models to frame and develop life cycle emission inventories resulting from company activities. We apply a hybrid LCA framework to an inland marine transportation company that transports bulk commodities within the United States. The analysis focuses on global warming potential, acidification, particulate matter emissions, eutrophication, ozone depletion, and water use. The results show that emissions of greenhouse gases, sulfur, and particulate matter are mainly from direct activities but that supply chain impacts are also significant, particularly in terms of water use. Hotspots were identified in the production, distribution, and use of fuel; the manufacturing, maintenance, and repair of boats and barges; food production; personnel air transport; and solid waste disposal. Results from the case study demonstrate that the aforementioned footprinting framework can provide a sufficiently reliable and comprehensive baseline for a company to formulate, measure, and monitor its efforts to reduce environmental impacts from internal and supply chain operations.     

Early‐stage sustainability assessment of biotechnological processes: A case study of citric acid production

Sustainability assessment using a life‐cycle approach is indispensable to contemporary bioprocess development. This assessment is particularly important for early‐stage bioprocess development. As early‐stage investigations of bioprocesses involve the evaluation of their ecological and socioeconomic effects, they can be adjusted more effectively and improved towards sustainability, thereby reducing environmental risk and production costs. Early‐stage sustainability assessment is an important precautionary practice and, despite limited data, a unique opportunity to determine the primary impacts of bioprocess development. To this end, a simple and robust method was applied based on the standardized life‐cycle sustainability assessment methodology and commercially available datasets. In our study, we elaborated on the yeast‐based citric acid production process with Yarrowia lipolytica assessing 11 different substrates in different process modes. The focus of our analysis comprised both cultivation and down‐stream processing. According to our results, the repeated batch raw glycerol based bioprocess alternative showed the best environmental performance. The second‐ and third‐best options were also glycerol‐based. The least sustainable processes were those using molasses, chemically produced ethanol, and soy bean oil. The aggregated results of environmental, economic, and social impacts display waste frying oil as the best‐ranked alternative. The bioprocess with sunflower oil in the batch mode ranked second. The least favorable alternatives were the chemically produced ethanol‐, soy oil‐, refined glycerol‐, and molasses‐based citric acid production processes. The scenario analysis demonstrated that the environmental impact of nutrients and wastewater treatment is negligible, but energy demand of cultivation and down‐stream processing dominated the production process. However, without energy demand the omission of neutralizers almost halves the total impact, and neglecting pasteurization also considerably decreases the environmental impact.     

Absolute Sustainability‐Based Life Cycle Assessment (ASLCA): A Benchmarking Approach to Operate Agri‐food Systems within the 2°C Global Carbon Budget

Given the increasing environmental impacts associated with global agri‐food systems, operating and developing these systems within the so‐called absolute environmental boundaries has become crucial, and hence the absolute environmental sustainability concept is particularly relevant. This study introduces an approach called absolute sustainability‐based life cycle assessment (ASLCA) that informs the climate impacts of an agri‐food system (on any economic level) in absolute terms. First, a global carbon budget was calculated that is sufficient to limit global warming to below 2°C. Next, a share of the carbon budget available to the global agri‐food sector was estimated, and then it was shared between agri‐food systems on multiple economic levels using four alternative methods. Third, the climate impacts of those systems were calculated using life cycle assessment methodology and were benchmarked against those carbon budget shares. This approach was used to assess a number of New Zealand agri‐food systems (agri‐food sector, horticulture industries and products) to investigate how these systems operated relative to their carbon budget shares. The results showed that, in 2013, the New Zealand agri‐food systems were within their carbon budget shares for one of the four methods, and illustrated the scale of change required for agri‐food systems to perform within their carbon budget shares. This method can potentially be extended to consider other environmental impacts with global boundaries; however, further development of the ASLCA is necessary to account for other environmental impacts whose boundaries are only meaningful when defined at a regional or local level.     

Life Cycle Assessment of a Magazine,Part II: A Comparison of Print and Tablet Editions

The rapid development of information and communications technology (ICT) is providing new ways to access media content. Electronic media are sometimes more advantageous from an environmental perspective than paper‐based media solutions, but ICT‐based media can also bring environmental burdens. This study compared the potential environmental impacts in a life cycle perspective of a print edition of a magazine and that of its electronic edition read on a tablet device. Important objectives were to identify activities giving rise to the main environmental impacts for both the print and tablet editions, determine the key factors influencing these impacts, and address data gaps and uncertainties. A detailed assessment of the tablet edition is provided in a previous article (part 1), whereas this article compares it with the print edition. The methodology used was life cycle assessment and the environmental impacts assessed included climate change, cumulative energy/exergy demand, metal depletion, photochemical oxidant formation, particulate matter formation, terrestrial acidification, freshwater eutrophication, marine eutrophication, and fossil depletion. Use of different functional units to compare the print and tablet editions of the magazine resulted in different relative environmental impacts. In addition, emerging (low number of readers and low reading time per copy) and mature (higher number of readers and higher reading time per copy) tablet editions yielded varying results. The emerging tablet edition resulted in higher potential environmental impacts per reader than the print edition, but the mature tablet edition yielded lower impacts per reader in half the impact categories assessed. This illustrates the importance of spreading the environmental impacts over a large number of readers. The electricity mix used in product system processes did not greatly affect the results of tablet/print comparisons, but overall number of readers for the tablet edition, number of readers per copy for the print edition, file size, and degree of use of the tablet device proved crucial for the comparison results.     

Social life cycle assessment for material selection: a case study of building materials

Purpose

Sustainability of a material-based product mainly depends on the materials used for the product itself or during its lifetime. A material selection decision should not only capture the functional performance required but should also consider the economical, social, and environmental impacts originated during the product life cycle. There is a need to assess social impacts of materials along the full life cycle, not only to be able to address the “social dimension” in sustainable material selection but also for potentially improving the circumstances of affected stakeholders. This paper presents the method and a case study of social life cycle assessment (S-LCA) specialized for comparative studies. Although the authors’ focus is on material selection, the proposed methodology can be used for comparative assessment of products in general.

Methods

The method is based on UNEP/SETAC “guidelines for social life-cycle assessment of products” and includes four main phases: goal and scope definition, life cycle inventory analysis, life cycle impact assessment, and life cycle interpretation. However, some special features are presented to adjust the framework for materials comparison purpose. In life cycle inventory analysis phase, a hot spot assessment is carried out using material flow analysis and stakeholder and experts’ interviews. Based on the results of that, a pairwise comparison method is proposed for life cycle impact assessment applying analytic hierarchy process. A case study was conducted to perform a comparative assessment of the social and socio-economic impacts in life cycle of concrete and steel as building materials in Iran. For hot spot analysis, generic and national level data were gathered, and for impact assessment phase, site-specific data were used.

Result and discussion

The unique feature of the proposed method compared with other works in S-LCA is its specialty to materials and products comparison. This leads to some differences in methodological issues of S-LCA that are explained in the paper in detail. The case study results assert that “steel/iron” in the north of Iran generally has the better social performance than “concrete/cement.” However, steel is associated with many negative social effects in some subcategories, e.g., freedom of association, fair salary, and occupational health in extraction phase. Against, social profile of concrete and cement industry is damaged mainly due to the negative impact of cement production on safe and healthy living condition. The case study presented in this article shows that the evaluation of social impacts is possible, even if the assessment is always affected by subjective value systems.

Conclusions

Application of the UNEP/SETAC guidelines in comparative studies can be encouraged based on the results of this paper. It enables a hotspot assessment of the social and socio-economic impacts in life cycle of alternative materials. This research showed that the development of a specialized S-LCA approach for materials and products comparison is well underway although many challenges still persist. Particularly characterization method in life cycle impact assessment phase is challenging. The findings of this case study pointed out that social impacts are primarily connected to the conduct of companies and less with processes and materials in general. These findings confirm the results of Dreyer et al. (Int J Life Cycle Assess 11(2):88–97, 2006). The proposed approach aims not only to identify the best socially sustainable alternative but also to reveal product/process improvement potentials to facilitate companies to act socially compatible. It will be interesting to apply the UNEP/SETAC approach of S-LCA to other materials and products; materials with a more complex life cycle will be a special challenge. As with any new method, getting experience on data collection and evaluation, building a data base, integrating the method in software tools, and finding ways for effective communication of results are important steps until integrating S-LCA in routine decision support.     

Environmental and economic optimisation of the floor on grade in residential buildings

Purpose

The goal of the study was to determine the preferred composition of the floor on grade in residential buildings in the Belgian context from a life cycle environmental and financial perspective. In addition to the life cycle costs, the required investments were evaluated to take into account budget restrictions. The analysis of current available materials and techniques allows both the designer and building owner to extend their decision criteria from mainly investment cost to life cycle aspects as well.

Methods

In this study, the potential environmental impact was assessed by considering the environmental external cost of the floors. Several existing methods were combined to enable a full assessment, taking the ExternE methodology (willingness to pay) as the main base. The ecoinvent database was used to gather the inventory data but was adapted to increase the representativeness for Belgium. The financial evaluation included both the investment and life cycle aspects. The latter was analysed through the sum of the present values of all costs occurring during the life span of the floor.

Results and discussion

The necessary assumptions (e.g. transport, end-of-life treatment, cleaning, life span, economic parameters) and the adaptations to the ecoinvent data are transparently reported. The methodological steps (e.g. monetary valuation, transmission losses, equivalent degree days, Pareto optimisation) are elaborated in detail. This allows the results, which are graphically presented, to be correctly interpreted. The contribution of the life cycle stages and the optimisation potential of the considered impacts are discussed.

Conclusions

The environmental external cost based on the willingness to pay to reduce environmental impacts proved to be relatively low, representing about 9?% of the financial cost. The cost reduction of current common practice was estimated to be about 20 and 60?% from a financial and environmental perspective, respectively. The insulation level and the floor covering were identified as the most important optimisation parameters.

Recommendations

Internalisation of environmental external costs might be an important step to achieve more sustainable solutions. However, it is recommended to consider financial and environmental external costs separately too because both contain important information for the decision maker. Because it is hard (if not impossible) to increase the insulation level of the floor on grade later on in the life cycle of the building, a high insulation value should be a priority during construction. The floor covering can more easily be adapted and is thus considered a secondary priority.