抗人类免疫缺陷病毒广谱中和抗体与疫苗设计

自发现人类免疫缺陷病毒1型（HIV-1）30年来,科学家们不断探索有效的HIV-1疫苗,但至今效果不理想。由于“精英患者”的广谱中和血清能起到有效的抗病毒作用,研究人员希望通过对体液保护免疫机制的研究,推动疫苗的设计和优化,为尽早研发成功HIV疫苗提供关键理论和技术支撑。近几年来,由于技术的突破和改进,从HIV感染者中分离获得广谱中和抗体的概率和数量大大提高。本文针对近几年来分离的有代表性的广谱中和抗体,根据其不同的识别位点分为四大类进行详细介绍,并总结了从研究广谱中和抗体中所获得的疫苗设计创新思路与启示。     

HIV-1广谱中和抗体筛选技术的研究进展

HIV-1广谱中和抗体(HIV-1 bNAbs)是一类可以中和大多数流行株的抗体。HIV-1 bNAbs的研究可以为抗艾滋病药物提供候选分子和为艾滋病疫苗设计提供指导,是评估艾滋病疫苗效果的重要指标之一。HIV-1 bNAbs可通过传统筛选技术获得,如杂交瘤技术、EBV转化和展示库技术等。近年来,随着单细胞克隆和分选技术的发展,HIV-1 bNAbs的筛选效率和抗体特异性显著提高。多项技术结合的筛选手段和新型筛选技术LIBRA-seq,以及生物信息学辅助的筛选技术将抗体序列和功能信息统一起来,为HIV-1 bNAbs筛选和疫苗设计提供技术支持。除了HIV-1,这些筛选技术和方法也可用于其他病毒bNAbs的筛选,为疫苗设计和抗病毒药物开发提供了有益启示。综述了广泛应用于HIV-1 bNAbs的筛选技术和最新进展,为后续HIV-1或其他病毒bNAbs的筛选提供参考。     

HIV中和抗体疫苗研究进展

由于HIV具有与其它微生物极为不同的生物学特点,HIV疫苗的研究面临着前所未有的困难和挑战。二十多年来,艾滋病疫苗研究主要采用了诱发中和抗体为主或细胞免疫为主两种策略,然而至今尚无实质性突破。诱发有效中和抗体一直是传统疫苗研发的重要策略,但HIV的高变异、多亚型等特点,使该策略在HIV疫苗研发中的应用成效甚微。近年来,一些具有广谱中和活性的HIV单抗的发现及其相应抗原表位的阐明,给HIV中和抗体疫苗的研究带来了新的希望。综合分析与评述这些进展,对于重新思考艾滋病疫苗和采用更好的策略进行艾滋病疫苗研究会有所帮助。     

HIV-1中和抗体疫苗研究进展

由于HIV具有与其它微生物极为不同的生物学特点,HIV疫苗的研究面临着前所未有的困难和挑战。20多年来,艾滋病疫苗研究主要采用了诱发中和抗体为主或细胞免疫为主两种策略,然而至今尚无实质性突破。诱发有效中和抗体一直是传统疫苗研发的重要策略,但HIV的高变异、多亚型等特点,使该策略在HIV疫苗研发中的应用成效甚微。近年来,一些具有广谱中和活性的HIV单抗的发现及其相应抗原表位的阐明,给HIV中和抗体疫苗的研究带来了新的希望。综合分析与评述这些进展,对于重新思考艾滋病疫苗和采用更好的策略进行艾滋病疫苗研究会衣纸帮助。     

HIV-1感染长期不进展者的B细胞谱系研究进展

高效抗反转录病毒治疗(highly active anti-retroviral therapy, HAART)在人类免疫缺陷病毒1型(human immunodeficiency virus type 1, HIV-1)感染方面取得了显著成效,但仍无法治愈艾滋病。研发出能够诱导中和多种HIV-1毒株能力的广谱中和抗体HIV-1疫苗,已成为防治HIV-1感染的重要目标。HIV-1感染长期不进展者是广谱中和抗体的主要提供者,阐明长期不进展者的B细胞谱系特征,将为广谱中和抗体成熟的相关研究奠定重要基础,为HIV-1疫苗研发提供新思路。现就HIV-1感染长期不进展者的B细胞谱系研究进展作一概述。     

HIV抗体抑制病毒感染的免疫效应和机制

在非人灵长类动物和人源化小鼠模型的实验研究中已经证明,人类免疫缺陷病毒(HIV)的广谱中和抗体(bNAbs)具有保护作用。近期bNAbs 3BNC117和VRC01的临床Ⅰ期试验证实,两种中和抗体均可降低未接受抗病毒治疗的HIV感染者的病毒载量。然而,bNAbs目前尚难以通过疫苗诱导产生。在泰国RV144疫苗试验中,疫苗对受试人群的总体保护率为31%,血液样本中未检出bNAbs,表明抗体的其他免疫效应功能在抑制病毒感染和复制的过程中发挥了重要作用。越来越多的研究表明,通过抗体Fcγ受体(FcγR)介导的非中和抑制作用在保护黏膜组织免受HIV感染的过程中可能发挥重要作用。在HIV通过黏膜组织传播的早期,树突状细胞和巨噬细胞表面表达的Fc受体可能起着决定性的作用,已有研究证实它们是HIV通过黏膜组织最初感染的靶细胞。因此,在新的疫苗设计策略中,除了诱导bNAbs产生,具有其他免疫效应功能的非中和抑制性抗体也应纳入疫苗接种评价体系中。     

利用细胞筛选法从噬菌体抗体库鉴定人源HIV-1单克隆中和抗体

以细胞法从HIV-1CRF07_BC特异性噬菌体抗体库中筛选和鉴定针对病毒包膜蛋白(Envelope,Env)的人源单克隆中和抗体。将pCH064.2-Env质粒转染293T细胞,以表达Env的活细胞淘洗噬菌体抗体库;利用细胞ELISA方法筛选Env特异性噬菌体阳性克隆,并测定抗体重链可变区(VH)和轻链可变区(VL)序列;以Ni+2-NTA层析柱纯化抗体Fab,SDS-PAGE分析抗体纯度;采用基于转染细胞和重组蛋白的ELISA以及流式细胞技术分析抗体的结合活性;以HIV-1假病毒系统评价抗体的中和活性。四轮淘洗使细胞特异性噬菌体得到约650倍的高度富集,细胞ELISA筛选到28个抗HIV Env的阳性克隆,序列分析发现五个具有不同VH和VL序列的抗体Fab(2801、2837、2863、2870和2920)。这些抗体与转染env的293T细胞反应,但不与重组表达的可溶性gp120蛋白反应,说明它们有可能针对依赖于Env复合物的空间构象表位。我们发现2801、2863和2870三个Fab抗体对HIV-1CRF07_BC亚型CH120.6毒株具有较强的中和活性,其IC50值分别为2.24μg/mL、0.89μg/mL和3.09μg/mL。其中,2801和2863对B亚型HIV-1毒株SF162具有较强的交叉中和作用,其IC50值分别为0.69μg/mL和3.52μg/mL。提示表达于293T细胞表面的HIV-1 Env可以有效富集和筛选噬菌体抗体库,并能成功分离和鉴定依赖于Env空间构象表位的HIV-1中和抗体。因此本研究为探讨HIV-1中和抗体的反应机制和研发艾滋病疫苗提供了新的技术平台。     

抗人类免疫缺陷病毒1型广谱中和抗体的研究进展

现行抗反转录病毒治疗药物的联合应用可有效抑制艾滋病进程并显著延长患者寿命,但由于人类免疫缺陷病毒1型(human immunodeficiency virus type 1,HIV-1)潜伏库的存在,艾滋病迄今尚无法治愈。近年发现抗HIV广谱中和抗体能有效降低患者体内病毒载量并延缓疾病进程,为研发艾滋病疫苗和治愈策略带来了曙光,尤其是序贯免疫策略的使用极大推进了广谱中和抗体的开发和应用进程。2018年,美国食品药品管理局(Food and Drug Administration,FDA)批准了第1个临床应用的广谱中性单克隆和抗体,无疑为抗HIV单克隆抗体药物的研发注入了一支强心剂。本文围绕近年来抗HIV广谱中和抗体的研究进展进行综述,探讨未来广谱中和抗体研发面临的挑战。     

PNAS:科学家分离出可有效杀灭HIV的环状结构抗体

正免疫系统可以产生中和HIV的特殊抗体,从而就可以阻断AIDS引发的HIV病毒致死患者的数量和趋势。但目前问题是,不足三分之一的患者都会在机体中产生广谱中和性抗体来应对HIV的感染,而开发特殊疫苗来激活机体针对HIV的有效免疫反应目前并没有成功。     

重组HIV-1 gp120 AAV2/1在小鼠和恒河猴体内的免疫原性

本文旨在研究表达HIV-1中国流行株gp120基因的重组腺相关病毒疫苗在小鼠和恒河猴体内的免疫原性。用rAAV2/1-gp120免疫BALB/c小鼠和恒河猴,分别用ELISA和HIV-1假病毒中和试验检测免疫动物血清中HIV-1特异性IgG抗体水平和中和抗体水平,用ELISPOT方法和体内杀伤实验检测HIV-1特异性细胞免疫应答水平。结果显示在小鼠体内用rAAV2/1-gp120仅免疫一次就能诱导较高水平的IgG抗体,IgG抗体至少能持续21周,但没有检测到中和抗体。rAAV2/1-gp120在小鼠体内诱导微弱水平的HIV-1特异性细胞免疫应答。rAAV2/1-gp120在恒河猴体内诱导的HIV-1特异性细胞和抗体反应均很弱,且检测不到中和抗体。提示rAAV2/1载体在诱导抗体反应方面具有特殊优势,但若希望诱导HIV-1特异性中和抗体,则需要改造env基因以提高其免疫原性。     

Antibody responses induced by SHIV infection are more focused than those induced by soluble native HIV-1 envelope trimers in non-human primates

The development of an effective human immunodeficiency virus (HIV-1) vaccine is a high global health priority. Soluble native-like HIV-1 envelope glycoprotein trimers (Env), including those based on the SOSIP design, have shown promise as vaccine candidates by inducing neutralizing antibody responses against the autologous virus in animal models. However, to overcome HIV-1’s extreme diversity a vaccine needs to induce broadly neutralizing antibodies (bNAbs). Such bNAbs can protect non-human primates (NHPs) and humans from infection. The prototypic BG505 SOSIP.664 immunogen is based on the BG505 env sequence isolated from an HIV-1-infected infant from Kenya who developed a bNAb response. Studying bNAb development during natural HIV-1 infection can inform vaccine design, however, it is unclear to what extent vaccine-induced antibody responses to Env are comparable to those induced by natural infection. Here, we compared Env antibody responses in BG505 SOSIP-immunized NHPs with those in BG505 SHIV-infected NHPs, by analyzing monoclonal antibodies (mAbs). We observed three major differences between BG505 SOSIP immunization and BG505 SHIV infection. First, SHIV infection resulted in more clonal expansion and less antibody diversity compared to SOSIP immunization, likely because of higher and/or prolonged antigenic stimulation and increased antigen diversity during infection. Second, while we retrieved comparatively fewer neutralizing mAbs (NAbs) from SOSIP-immunized animals, these NAbs targeted more diverse epitopes compared to NAbs from SHIV-infected animals. However, none of the NAbs, either elicited by vaccination or infection, showed any breadth. Finally, SOSIP immunization elicited antibodies against the base of the trimer, while infection did not, consistent with the base being placed onto the virus membrane in the latter setting. Together these data provide new insights into the antibody response against BG505 Env during infection and immunization and limitations that need to be overcome to induce better responses after vaccination.     

Vaccine with bacterium-like particles displaying HIV-1 gp120 trimer elicits specific mucosal responses and neutralizing antibodies in rhesus macaques

Preclinical studies have shown that the induction of secretory IgA (sIgA) in mucosa and neutralizing antibodies (NAbs) in sera is essential for designing vaccines that can effectively block the transmission of HIV-1. We previously showed that a vaccine consisting of bacterium-like particles (BLPs) displaying Protan-gp120AE-MTQ (PAM) could induce mucosal immune responses through intranasal (IN) immunization in mice and NAbs through intramuscular (IM) immunization in guinea pigs. Here, we evaluated the ability of this vaccine BLP-PAM to elicit HIV-1-specific mucosal and systemic immune responses through IN and IM immunization combination strategies in rhesus macaques. First, the morphology, antigenicity and epitope accessibility of the vaccine were analysed by transmission electron microscopy, bio-layer interferometry and ELISA. In BLP-PAM-immunized macaques, HIV-1-specific sIgA were rapidly induced through IN immunization in situ and distant mucosal sites, although the immune responses are relatively weak. Furthermore, the HIV-1-specific IgG and IgA antibody levels in mucosal secretions were enhanced and maintained, while production of serum NAbs against heterologous HIV-1 tier 1 and 2 pseudoviruses was elicited after IM boost. Additionally, situ mucosal responses and systemic T cell immune responses were improved by rAd2-gp120AE boost immunization via the IN and IM routes. These results suggested that BLP-based delivery in combination with the IN and IM immunization approach represents a potential vaccine strategy against HIV-1.     

Immune Focusing and Enhanced Neutralization Induced by HIV-1 gp140 Chemical Cross-Linking

Experimental vaccine antigens based upon the HIV-1 envelope glycoproteins (Env) have failed to induce neutralizing antibodies (NAbs) against the majority of circulating viral strains as a result of antibody evasion mechanisms, including amino acid variability and conformational instability. A potential vaccine design strategy is to stabilize Env, thereby focusing antibody responses on constitutively exposed, conserved surfaces, such as the CD4 binding site (CD4bs). Here, we show that a largely trimeric form of soluble Env can be stably cross-linked with glutaraldehyde (GLA) without global modification of antigenicity. Cross-linking largely conserved binding of all potent broadly neutralizing antibodies (bNAbs) tested, including CD4bs-specific VRC01 and HJ16, but reduced binding of several non- or weakly neutralizing antibodies and soluble CD4 (sCD4). Adjuvanted administration of cross-linked or unmodified gp140 to rabbits generated indistinguishable total gp140-specific serum IgG binding titers. However, sera from animals receiving cross-linked gp140 showed significantly increased CD4bs-specific antibody binding compared to animals receiving unmodified gp140. Moreover, peptide mapping of sera from animals receiving cross-linked gp140 revealed increased binding to gp120 C1 and V1V2 regions. Finally, neutralization titers were significantly elevated in sera from animals receiving cross-linked gp140 rather than unmodified gp140. We conclude that cross-linking favors antigen stability, imparts antigenic modifications that selectively refocus antibody specificity and improves induction of NAbs, and might be a useful strategy for future vaccine design.     

The breadth and potency of passively acquired human immunodeficiency virus type 1-specific neutralizing antibodies do not correlate with the risk of infant infection

Although a major goal of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) vaccine efforts is to elicit broad and potent neutralizing antibodies (NAbs), there are no data that directly demonstrate a role for such NAbs in protection from HIV-1 infection in exposed humans. The setting of mother-to-child transmission provides an opportunity to examine whether NAbs provide protection from HIV-1 infection because infants acquire passive antibodies from their mothers prior to exposure to HIV-1 through breastfeeding. We evaluated the characteristics of HIV-1-specific NAbs in 100 breast-fed infants of HIV-1-positive mothers who were HIV-1 negative at birth and monitored them until age 2. A panel of eight viruses that included variants representative of those in the study region as well as more diverse strains was used to determine the breadth of the infant NAbs. From their mothers, infants acquired broad and potent NAbs that were capable of recognizing heterologous circulating HIV-1 variants of diverse subtypes, but the presence of NAbs of broad HIV-1 specificity was not associated with transmission risk. There was also no correlation between responses to any particular virus tested, which included a range of diverse variants that demonstrated different neutralization profiles, including recognition by specific antibodies with known epitope targets. The eight viruses tested exhibited neutralization profiles to a variety of monoclonal antibodies (2F5, PG9, and VRC01) similar to those of viruses present in pregnant women in the cohort. These results suggest that the breadth and potency of the heterologous antibody response in exposed infants, measured against a virus panel comprised of variants typical of those circulating in the population, does not predict protection.     

Analysis of Neutralization Specificities in Polyclonal Sera Derived from Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1-Infected Individuals

During human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) infection, patients develop various levels of neutralizing antibody (NAb) responses. In some cases, patient sera can potently neutralize diverse strains of HIV-1, but the antibody specificities that mediate this broad neutralization are not known, and their elucidation remains a formidable challenge. Due to variable and nonneutralizing determinants on the exterior envelope glycoprotein (Env), nonnative Env protein released from cells, and the glycan shielding that assembles in the context of the quaternary structure of the functional spike, HIV-1 Env elicits a myriad of binding antibodies. However, few of these antibodies can neutralize circulating viruses. We present a systematic analysis of the NAb specificities of a panel of HIV-1-positive sera, using methodologies that identify both conformational and continuous neutralization determinants on the HIV-1 Env protein. Characterization of sera included selective adsorption with native gp120 and specific point mutant variants, chimeric virus analysis, and peptide inhibition of viral neutralization. The gp120 protein was the major neutralizing determinant for most sera, although not all neutralization activity against all viruses could be identified. In some broadly neutralizing sera, the gp120-directed neutralization mapped to the CD4 binding region of gp120. In addition, we found evidence that regions of the gp120 coreceptor binding site may also be a target of neutralizing activity. Sera displaying limited neutralization breadth were mapped to the immunogenic V3 region of gp120. In a subset of sera, we also identified NAbs directed against the conserved, membrane-proximal external region of gp41. These data allow a more detailed understanding of the humoral responses to the HIV-1 Env protein and provide insights regarding the most relevant targets for HIV-1 vaccine design.     

Tiered Categorization of a Diverse Panel of HIV-1 Env Pseudoviruses for Assessment of Neutralizing Antibodies

The restricted neutralization breadth of vaccine-elicited antibodies is a major limitation of current human immunodeficiency virus-1 (HIV-1) candidate vaccines. In order to permit the efficient identification of vaccines with enhanced capacity for eliciting cross-reactive neutralizing antibodies (NAbs) and to assess the overall breadth and potency of vaccine-elicited NAb reactivity, we assembled a panel of 109 molecularly cloned HIV-1 Env pseudoviruses representing a broad range of genetic and geographic diversity. Viral isolates from all major circulating genetic subtypes were included, as were viruses derived shortly after transmission and during the early and chronic stages of infection. We assembled a panel of genetically diverse HIV-1-positive (HIV-1⁺) plasma pools to assess the neutralization sensitivities of the entire virus panel. When the viruses were rank ordered according to the average sensitivity to neutralization by the HIV-1⁺ plasmas, a continuum of average sensitivity was observed. Clustering analysis of the patterns of sensitivity defined four subgroups of viruses: those having very high (tier 1A), above-average (tier 1B), moderate (tier 2), or low (tier 3) sensitivity to antibody-mediated neutralization. We also investigated potential associations between characteristics of the viral isolates (clade, stage of infection, and source of virus) and sensitivity to NAb. In particular, higher levels of NAb activity were observed when the virus and plasma pool were matched in clade. These data provide the first systematic assessment of the overall neutralization sensitivities of a genetically and geographically diverse panel of circulating HIV-1 strains. These reference viruses can facilitate the systematic characterization of NAb responses elicited by candidate vaccine immunogens.The development of an HIV-1 vaccine that can elicit protective humoral and cellular immunity is one of the highest priorities in the global fight against HIV/AIDS (2, 44). Data from lentiviral animal models suggest that antibodies capable of neutralizing primary strains of HIV-1 may have the capacity to prevent HIV-1 infection (1, 28, 30, 35). However, the ability to design immunogens that can elicit such broadly reactive neutralizing antibodies (NAbs) has proven to be a formidable obstacle, due in part to the extensive genetic diversity of HIV-1 and the complex escape mechanisms employed by the envelope gp120 and gp41 glycoproteins that form the trimeric viral envelope spike (Env) (20, 34, 45). As improved vaccine immunogens enter the stage of detailed preclinical analysis, the in vitro assays used for evaluating vaccine sera will need to detect incremental advances in the magnitude, breadth, and durability of NAb responses (37). Such data can then be used to distinguish and prioritize among antibody-based vaccine immunogens. Furthermore, highly reproducible and quantitative data on vaccine-elicited NAbs can enhance our understanding of the relationship between Env immunogen design and the resulting antibody response generated.Current recommendations for evaluating candidate vaccine sera for NAb activity include the use of standard reference panels of molecularly cloned HIV-1 Env pseudoviruses and a tiered algorithm of testing (27). Reference virus panels should represent genetically and geographically diverse subsets of viruses with neutralization phenotypes that are generally representative of primary isolate strains that a vaccine would need to protect against. As such, standard reference panels for HIV-1 subtypes B and C have been described (22, 23), and efforts continue toward the creation of virus reference panels representing additional genetic subtypes. For tiered evaluation of NAb activity, vaccine sera are first tested against homologous Env pseudoviruses and/or a small number of isolates that are known to be highly sensitive to antibody-mediated neutralization (commonly referred to as tier 1 viruses). A more rigorous assessment of the potency and breadth of vaccine-induced NAbs entails testing against more resistant reference panel viruses (commonly referred to as tier 2 viruses) that are either matched or mismatched in genetic subtype to the vaccine immunogen (second and third tiers of testing, respectively). This tiered approach for testing candidate HIV-1 vaccine sera is advantageous in that it provides increasingly stringent levels for assessing the potency and breadth of NAbs, uses standardized panels of reference viruses for consistency and reproducibility, and allows for the generation of comparative data sets for evaluating different candidate vaccine regimens.While the tiered algorithm for evaluating vaccine sera has gained acceptance in the field, a major limitation has been the lack of objective data to characterize HIV-1 Env pseudoviruses according to their overall sensitivity or resistance to antibody-mediated neutralization. The category of sensitive, tier 1 viruses arose in part from the observation that HIV-1 isolates passaged through T-cell lines often become highly sensitive to antibody-mediated neutralization (33). Compared to these laboratory-adapted viruses, most primary isolate strains are moderately resistant to NAbs. Yet, even among recently isolated circulating viral Envs, there is a wide spectrum of neutralization sensitivity. Some HIV-1 isolates have a neutralization phenotype closer to that of tier 1 viruses, while others appear to be quite neutralization resistant (6, 19, 22, 23). Overall, there are few data from which to understand or categorize the viral neutralization phenotypes of HIV-1 strains. As a result, we have a limited ability to assess the potential potency of vaccine-elicited NAbs or to estimate the percentage of circulating HIV-1 isolates that would be neutralized. Further categorization of isolates into distinct subgroups based on sensitivity to NAbs may reveal patterns of neutralization that could provide a greater understanding of the NAb response generated by current and future vaccine immunogens. In addition, the structure-based design of novel immunogens may be facilitated by an ability to monitor the types of viruses neutralized and to specifically map the viral epitopes targeted by vaccine-elicited NAbs.In this study, we assembled a diverse panel of 109 HIV-1 Env pseudoviruses, including multiple representatives from clades A, B, and C and circulating recombinant forms (CRFs) CRF07_BC and CRF02_AG-related. These were tested for their sensitivities using HIV-1-positive (HIV-1⁺) plasma samples representative of clades A, B, and C and CRF01_AE and CRF02_AG. Clinical, demographic, and viral genetic sequence data were collected for each virus. The neutralization phenotype of each virus was assessed with a panel of seven clade-specific HIV-1⁺ plasma pools. Viruses were rank ordered according to average neutralization sensitivity, and k-means clustering was utilized to identify four subgroups of viruses with neutralization phenotypes ranging from highly sensitive to resistant. Together, these results will improve the ability to rigorously evaluate antibody-based HIV-1 vaccines and will facilitate the interpretation of assay results to identify immunogens with improved capacity to elicit broadly cross-reactive NAbs.     

Two closely related Env antigens from the same patient elicited different spectra of neutralizing antibodies against heterologous HIV-1 isolates

Identification of immunogens capable of eliciting broadly neutralizing antibody (NAb) responses against HIV-1 is a major goal toward the development of an AIDS vaccine. Despite significant progress in understanding the structural features of the HIV-1 envelope glycoprotein (Env) and the discovery of multiple broadly neutralizing monoclonal antibodies with defined antigenic structures, the design of optimal Env immunogens to elicit broad NAbs remains a major challenge. As the structural determinants of Env immunogenicity remain unclear, we assessed two closely related Env antigens isolated from the same HIV-1-infected patient with different phenotypic features to identify what may result in a favorable immunogenic profile. One Env, B33, isolated from brain, was highly macrophage tropic with a high CD4 affinity, while the other, LN40, isolated from the lymph nodes, was poorly macrophage tropic with a low CD4 affinity. Using a DNA prime-protein boost approach, rabbits primed with LN40 Env antigen had a NAb response against heterologous primary isolates, while B33 Env antigens were capable of eliciting NAbs against only homologous and sensitive viral isolates. Further analysis revealed that the specificity of NAbs elicited by the LN40 antigen mapped to limited residues within or flanking the CD4 binding site. Certain key structural determinants were identified that could differentiate primary Env immunogens based on their potential to elicit broader NAbs. This progress will facilitate the rational design of effective HIV-1 vaccine formulations with optimal Env antigens.     

Sequential immunization with a subtype B HIV-1 envelope quasispecies partially mimics the in vivo development of neutralizing antibodies

A major goal of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) vaccine efforts is the design of Envelope (Env)-based immunogens effective at eliciting heterologous or broad neutralizing antibodies (NAbs). We hypothesized that programming the B-cell response could be achieved by sequentially exposing the host to a collection of env variants representing the viral quasispecies members isolated from an individual that developed broad NAbs over time. This ordered vaccine approach (sequential) was compared to exposure to a cocktail of env clones (mixture) and to a single env variant (clonal). The three strategies induced comparable levels of the autologous and heterologous neutralization of tier 1 pseudoviruses. Sequential and mixture exposure to quasispecies led to epitope targeting similar to that observed in the simian-human immunodeficiency virus (SHIV)-infected animal from which the env variants were cloned, while clonal and sequential exposure led to greater antibody maturation than the mixture. Therefore, the sequential vaccine approach best replicated the features of the NAb response observed in that animal. This study is the first to explore the use of a collection of HIV-1 env quasispecies variants as immunogens and to present evidence that it is possible to educate the B-cell response by sequential exposure to native HIV-1 quasispecies env variants derived from an individual with a broadened NAb response.     

Stabilizing HIV-1 envelope glycoprotein trimers to induce neutralizing antibodies

An effective HIV-1 vaccine probably will need to be able to induce broadly neutralizing HIV-1 antibodies (bNAbs) in order to be efficacious. The many bNAbs that have been isolated from HIV-1 infected patients illustrate that the human immune system is able to elicit this type of antibodies. The elucidation of the structure of the HIV-1 envelope glycoprotein (Env) trimer has further fueled the search for Env immunogens that induce bNAbs, but while native Env trimer mimetics are often capable of inducing strain-specific neutralizing antibodies (NAbs) against the parental virus, they have not yet induced potent bNAb responses. To improve the performance of Env trimer immunogens, researchers have studied the immune responses that Env trimers have induced in animals; they have evaluated how to best use Env trimers in various immunization regimens; and they have engineered increasingly stabilized Env trimer variants. Here, we review the different approaches that have been used to increase the stability of HIV-1 Env trimer immunogens with the aim of improving the induction of NAbs. In particular, we draw parallels between the various approaches to stabilize Env trimers and ones that have been used by nature in extremophile microorganisms in order to survive in extreme environmental conditions.