Nucleosome positioning as a critical determinant for the DNA cleavage sites of mammalian DNA topoisomerase II in reconstituted simian virus 40 chromatin.

We have assessed the ability of nucleosomes to influence the formation of mammalian topoisomerase II-DNA complexes by mapping the sites of cleavage induced by four unrelated topoisomerase II inhibitors in naked versus nucleosome-reconstituted SV40 DNA. DNA fragments were reconstituted with histone octamers from HeLa cells by the histone exchange method. Nucleosome positions were determined by comparing micrococcal nuclease cleavage patterns of nucleosome-reconstituted and naked DNA. Three types of DNA regions were defined: 1) regions with fixed nucleosome positioning; 2) regions lacking regular nucleosome phasing; and 3) a region around the replication origin (from position 5100 to 600) with no detectable nucleosomes. Topoisomerase II cleavage sites were suppressed in nucleosomes and persisted or were enhanced in linker DNA and in the nucleosome-free region around the replication origin. Incubation of reconstituted chromatin with topoisomerase II protected nucleosome-free regions from micrococcal nuclease cleavage without changing the overall micrococcal nuclease cleavage pattern. Thus, the present results indicate that topoisomerase II binds preferentially to nucleosome-free DNA and that the presence of nucleosomes at preferred DNA sequences influences drug-induced DNA breaks by topoisomerase II inhibitors.     

Assessment of preferential cleavage of an actively transcribed retroviral hybrid gene in murine cells by deoxyribonuclease I, bleomycin, neocarzinostatin, or ionizing radiation

Preferential cleavage induced by bleomycin, neocarzinostatin, or ionizing radiation in a transcribed cellular gene was evaluated through comparisons with deoxyribonuclease I. The glucocorticoid-inducible LTL gene (a hybrid viral gene derived from mouse mammary tumor virus DNA) previously described [Zaret, K. S., & Yamamoto, K. R. (1984) Cell (Cambridge, Mass.) 38, 29-38] served as the specific DNA target. A Southern blot analysis was used to specifically assess cleavage of the LTL gene in nuclei isolated from cells either treated or untreated with the synthetic glucocorticoid dexamethasone. Hypersensitivity of the gene to bleomycin or neocarzinostatin, which paralleled deoxyribonuclease I hypersensitivity, was evident only in nuclei isolated from dexamethasone-treated cells. Like deoxyribonuclease I, sites of dexamethasone-inducible drug hypersensitivity were coincident with the binding region for the glucocorticoid receptor found within the regulatory sequences of the LTL gene. In contrast, no hypersensitivity to ionizing radiation was evident. Although bleomycin and neocarzinostatin showed qualitatively similar preferences for the transcribed LTL gene, quantitative evaluations of damage to total cellular DNA by filter elution showed that the relative specificity of bleomycin for the hypersensitive region was much less than that of either deoxyribonuclease I or neocarzinostatin.     

Release of nucleosomes from nuclei by bleomycin-induced DNA strand scission

Mononucleosomes were released from both isolated mammalian (hog thyroid) and protozoan (Tetrahymena) nuclei by the bleomycin-induced DNA-strand breaking reaction. Trout sperm nuclei, on the other hand, were protected from the bleomycin-mediated DNA degradation. The mononucleosomes released from the bleomycin-treated nuclei contained the core histones H2A, H2B, H3, and H4; while HMG1 and HMG2 proteins, in addition to the core histones, were detected in the mononucleosomes obtained by micrococcal nuclease digestion of nuclei. HMGs, but not H1 histone, were dissociated into the supernatant by cleavage of chromatin DNA with bleomycin, whereas both HMGs and H1 were found in that fraction by digestion of nuclei with micrococcal nuclease. HMG1 and HMG2 were exclusively dissociated from chromatin with 1 mM bleomycin under the solvent condition where the DNA strand-breaking activity of the drug is repressed. These observations suggest the possibility that bleomycin preferentially binds to linker DNA regions not occupied by H1 histone in chromatin and exclusively dissociates HMG proteins and breaks the DNA strand. The results of the effects on bleomycin-induced DNA cleavage of nuclei of various drugs including polyamines, chelating agents, intercalating antibiotics such as mitomycin C or adriamycin, and radical scavengers are also presented.     

Scaffold attachment of DNA loops in metaphase chromosomes

We have examined the higher-order loop organization of DNA in interphase nuclei and metaphase chromosomes from Drosophila Kc cells, and we detect no changes in the distribution of scaffold-attached regions (SARs) between these two phases of the cell cycle. The SARs, previously defined from experiments with interphase nuclei, not only are bound to the metaphase scaffold when endogenous DNA is probed but also rebind specifically to metaphase scaffolds when added exogenously as cloned, end-labeled fragments. Since metaphase scaffolds have a simpler protein pattern than interphase nuclear scaffolds, and both have a similar binding capacity, it appears that the population of proteins required for the specific scaffold-DNA interaction is limited to those found in metaphase scaffolds. Surprisingly, metaphase scaffolds isolated from Drosophila Kc cells contain both the lamin protein and a pore-complex protein, glycoprotein (gp) 188. To study whether lamin contributes to the SAR-scaffold interaction, we have carried out comparative binding studies with scaffolds from HeLa metaphase chromosomes, which are free of lamina, and from HeLa interphase nuclei. All Drosophila SAR fragments tested bind with excellent specificity to HeLa interphase scaffolds, whereas a subset of them bind to HeLa metaphase scaffolds. The maintenance of the scaffold-DNA interaction in metaphase indicates that lamin proteins are not involved in the attachment site for at least a subset of Drosophila SARs. This evolutionary and cell-cycle conservation of scaffold binding sites is consistent with a fundamental role for these fragments in the organization of the genome into looped domains.     

Asymmetry and polarity of nucleosomes in chicken erythrocyte chromatin.

Nucleosome dimers containing, on average, a single molecule of histone H5 have been isolated from chicken erythrocyte nuclei and the associated DNA fragments cloned and sequenced. The average sequence organization of at least one of the two nucleosomes in the dimers is highly asymmetric and suggests that the torsional, as well as the axial, flexibility of DNA is a determinant of nucleosome positioning. On average the nucleosome dimer is a polar structure containing linker DNA of variable lengths. The sequences associated with H5 containing nucleosomes and core particles are sufficiently different to indicate that removal of histone H5 (or H1) from chromatin may result in the migration of the histone octamer and a consequent exposure of sites for regulatory proteins.     

Restriction endonuclease cleavage of satellite DNA in intact bovine nuclei

We have analyzed the efficiency with which specific nucleotide sequences within nucleosomes are recognized and cleaved by DNA restriction endonucleases. A system amenable to this sort of analysis is the cleavage of the bovine genome with the restriction endonuclease EcoRI. Bovine satellite I comprises 7% of the genome and is tandemly repetitious with an EcoRI site at 1400 base pair (bp) intervals within this sequence. The ease with which this restriction fragment can be measured permits an analysis of the accessibility of this sequence when organized in a nucleosomal array.Initial studies indicated that satellite I sequences are organized in a nucleosomal structure in a manner analogous to that observed for total genomic DNA. We then examined the accessibility of the EcoRI cleavage sites in satellite to endonucleolytic cleavage in intact nuclei. We find that whereas virtually all the satellite I sequences from naked DNA are cleaved into discrete 1400 bp fragments, only 33% of the satellite I DNA is liberated as this fragment from intact nuclei. These data indicate that 57% of the EcoRI sites in nuclei are accessible to cleavage and that cleavage can occur within the core of at least half the nucleosomal subunits. Analysis of the products of digestion suggests a random distribution of nucleosomes about the EcoRI sites of satellite I DNA.Finally, the observation that satellite sequences can be cleaved from nuclei to 1400 bp length fragments with their associated proteins provides a method for the isolation of specific sequences as chromatin. Using sucrose gradient velocity centrifugation, we have isolated a 70% pure fraction of satellite I chromatin. Nuclease digestion of this chromatin fraction reveals the presence of nucleosomal subunits and indicates that specific sequences can be isolated in this manner without gross disorganization of their subunit structure.     

Superstructures of wet inactive chromatin and the chromosome surface

Superpacking of chromatin and the surface features of metaphase chromosomes have been studied by SiO replication of wet, unstained, and unfixed specimens in an exceedingly thin (≤ 1 nm) aqueous layer, keeping them wet. Hydrophilic Formvar substrates allow controlled thinning of the aqueous layer covering the wet specimens. Whole mounts of chromatin and chromosomes were prepared by applying a microsurface spreading method to swollen nuclei and mitotic cells at metaphase. The highest level of nucleosome folding of the inactive chromatin in chicken erythrocytes and rat liver nuclei is basically a second-order superhelical organization (width 150–200 nm, pitch distance 50–150 nm) of the elementary nucleosome filament. In unfavorable environments (as determined by ionic agents, fixative, and dehydrating agents) this superstructure collapses into chains of superbeads and beads. Formalin (10%) apparently attacks at discrete sites of chromatin, which are then separated into superbeads. The latter consist of 4–6 nucleosomes and seemingly correspond to successive turns of an original solenoidal coil (width 30–35 nm), which forms the superhelical organization. When this organization is unfolded, eg, in 1–2 mM EDTA, DNAse-sensitive filaments (diameter 1.7 nm) are seen to be wrapped around the nucleosomes. The wet chromosomes in each metaphase spread are held to each other by smooth microtubular fibers, 20–30 nm in diameter. Before they enter into a chromsome, these fibers branch into 9–13 protofilaments, each 5 nm wide. The chromosome surface contains a dense distribution of subunits about 10–25 nm in diameter. This size distribution corresponds to that of nucleosomes and their superbeads. Distinct from this beaded chromosome surface are several smooth, 23–30-nm-diameter fibers, which are longitudinal at the centromere and seem to continue into the chromatid structure. The surface replicas of dried chromosomes do not show these features, which are revealed only in wet chromosomes.     

The chemical composition of nuclei and chromosomes isolated by the Langmuir trough technique

The pattern of staining for DNA, histone, and nonhistone protein has been studied in whole cells and in nuclei and chromosomes isolated by surface spreading. In whole interphase cells from bovine kidney tissue culture, nuclear staining for DNA and histones reveals numerous small, intensely stained clumps, surrounded by more diffusely stained material. Nuclei in whole cells stained for nonhistone proteins also contain intensely stained regions surrounded by diffuse stain. These intensely stained regions also stain for RNA, indicating that the regions contain nucleolar material. Electron microscopy of kidney cells confirms that multiple nucleoli are present. Kidney nuclei isolated by surface spreading show an even distribution of stain for DNA, histones, and nonhistone proteins, indicating that the surface forces disperse both condensed chromatin and nucleoli. DNA and protein staining was also studied in metaphase chromosomes from testes of the milkweed bug, Oncopeltus fasciatus. Staining for DNA and histones in metaphase chromosomes is essentially the same in sections of fixed and embedded testes as in preparations isolated by surface spreading. However, striking differences are noted in the distribution of nonhistone proteins. In sections, nonhistone stain is concentrated in extrachromosomal areas; metaphase chromosomes do not stain for nonhistone proteins. Chromosomes isolated by surface spreading, however, stain intensely for nonhistone proteins. This suggests that nonhistone proteins are bound to the chromosomes as a contaminant during the isolation procedure. The relationship of these findings to current work with chromosomes isolated for electron microscopy is discussed.     

The chemical composition of nuclei and chromosomes isolated by the Langmuir trough technique

The pattern of staining for DNA, histone, and nonhistone protein has been studied in whole cells and in nuclei and chromosomes isolated by surface spreading. In whole interphase cells from bovine kidney tissue culture, nuclear staining for DNA and histones reveals numerous small, intensely stained clumps, surrounded by more diffusely stained material. Nuclei in whole cells stained for nonhistone proteins also contain intensely stained regions surrounded by diffuse stain. These intensely stained regions also stain for RNA, indicating that the regions contain nucleolar material. Electron microscopy of kidney cells confirms that multiple nucleoli are present. Kidney nuclei isolated by surface spreading show an even distribution of stain for DNA, histones, and nonhistone proteins, indicating that the surface forces disperse both condensed chromatin and nucleoli. DNA and protein staining was also studied in metaphase chromosomes from testes of the milkweed bug, Oncopeltus fasciatus. Staining for DNA and histones in metaphase chromosomes is essentially the same in sections of fixed and embedded testes as in preparations isolated by surface spreading. However, striking differences are noted in the distribution of nonhistone proteins. In sections, nonhistone stain is concentrated in extrachromosomal areas; metaphase chromosomes do not stain for nonhistone proteins. Chromosomes isolated by surface spreading, however, stain intensely for nonhistone proteins. This suggests that nonhistone proteins are bound to the chromosomes as a contaminant during the isolation procedure. The relationship of these findings to current work with chromosomes isolated for electron microscopy is discussed.     

The similarity of DNA sequences remaining bound to scaffold upon nuclease treatment of interphase nuclei and metaphase chromosomes.

The fragments of DNA attached to protein skeleton of interphase nuclei or metaphase chromosomes were obtained. Both the method involving restriction endonuclease treatment/1,2/and a novel procedure based on mild staphylococcal nuclease digestion were used. In the latter case, DNA fragments remaining bound to nuclei or chromosomes are not enriched in satellite but only in abundant middle repetitive DNA. The shorter the fragments of attached DNA, the higher the content of middle repetitive DNA in the fraction. It has a slightly higher density in a CsCl gradient comparing to the main DNA. The yield of attached DNA, its distribution in a CsCl density gradient, and its renaturation properties are essentially the same for interphase and metaphase chromosomes. The average size of DNA loops was found to be equal to approximately 60 kb for both metaphase chromosomes and interphase nuclei. The conclusion has been drawn that the bulk of attachment sites of DNP fibrils to axial chromosomal structures remains unchanged during the cell cycle.     

Low angle x-ray diffraction studies of HeLa metaphase chromosomes: effects of histone phosphorylation and chromosome isolation procedure

To test whether gross changes in chromatin structure occur during the cell cycle, we compared HeLa mitotic metaphase chromosomes and interphase nuclei by low angle x-ray diffraction. Interphase nuclei and metaphase chromosomes differ only in the 30-40-nm packing reflection, but not in the higher angle part of the x-ray diffraction pattern. Our interpretation of these results is that the transition to metaphase affects only the packing of chromatin fibers and not, to the resolution of our method, the internal structure of nucleosomes or the pattern of nucleosome packing within chromatin fibers. In particular, phosphorylation of histones H1 and H3 at mitosis does not affect chromatin fiber structure, since the same x-ray results are obtained whether or not histone dephosphorylation is prevented by isolating metaphase chromosomes in the presence of 5,5'-dithiobis(2- nitrobenzoate) or low concentrations of p-chloromercuriphenylsulfonate (ClHgPhSO3). We also compared metaphase chromosomes isolated by several different published procedures, and found that the isolation procedure can significantly affect the x-ray diffraction pattern. High concentrations of ClHgPhSO3 can also profoundly affect the pattern.     

The Middle Region of an HP1-binding Protein, HP1-BP74, Associates with Linker DNA at the Entry/Exit Site of Nucleosomal DNA

In higher eukaryotic cells, DNA molecules are present as chromatin fibers, complexes of DNA with various types of proteins; chromatin fibers are highly condensed in metaphase chromosomes during mitosis. Although the formation of the metaphase chromosome structure is essential for the equal segregation of replicated chromosomal DNA into the daughter cells, the mechanism involved in the organization of metaphase chromosomes is poorly understood. To identify proteins involved in the formation and/or maintenance of metaphase chromosomes, we examined proteins that dissociated from isolated human metaphase chromosomes by 0.4 m NaCl treatment; this treatment led to significant chromosome decondensation, but the structure retained the core histones. One of the proteins identified, HP1-BP74 (heterochromatin protein 1-binding protein 74), composed of 553 amino acid residues, was further characterized. HP1-BP74 middle region (BP74Md), composed of 178 amino acid residues (Lys⁹⁷–Lys²⁷⁴), formed a chromatosome-like structure with reconstituted mononucleosomes and protected the linker DNA from micrococcal nuclease digestion by ∼25 bp. The solution structure determined by NMR revealed that the globular domain (Met¹⁵³–Thr²³⁷) located within BP74Md possesses a structure similar to that of the globular domain of linker histones, which underlies its nucleosome binding properties. Moreover, we confirmed that BP74Md and full-length HP1-BP74 directly binds to HP1 (heterochromatin protein 1) and identified the exact sites responsible for this interaction. Thus, we discovered that HP1-BP74 directly binds to HP1, and its middle region associates with linker DNA at the entry/exit site of nucleosomal DNA in vitro.     

Factors influencing ADP-ribosylation differences between chromosomal proteins of interphase and metaphase HeLa cells

Fundamental differences were previously discovered in the ADP-ribosylation of proteins from metaphase chromosomes and interphase nuclei of HeLa cells. The number of modified nonhistone species was found to be dramatically reduced for metaphase chromosomes. An investigation has therefore been made of factors which could influence, and therefore be responsible for, this change in ADP-ribosylation during the cell cycle. Modified proteins were detected by autoradiography of sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gels containing mitotic and interphase samples from permeabilized cells that had been incubated with [32P]NAD. Whole cells showed a difference between interphase and metaphase similar to that for isolated nuclei and chromosomes. Chromosome expansion, disruption of chromosomes or nuclei, DNA nicking, and cellular growth activity significantly changed the incorporation of 32P label. Inhibitors of protein, RNA, and DNA synthesis did not, however, greatly affect ADP-ribosylation. The pattern of labeled species was not altered by the presence of nonradioactive NAD, though the extent of labeling declined. The results were not artifactually due to the procedure used to arrest cells in mitosis. Similar results were found with Novikoff rat hepatoma cells, demonstrating that the difference between metaphase and interphase is not confined to HeLa cells.     

Organization of 5S genes in chromatin of Xenopus laevis.

The chromatin organization of the genes coding for 5S RNA in Xenopus laevis has been investigated with restriction endonucleases and micrococcal nuclease. Digestion of nuclei from liver, kidney, blood and kidney cells maintained in culture with micrococcal nuclease reveals that these Xenopus cells and tissues have shorter nucleosome repeat lengths than the corresponding cells and tissues from other higher organisms. 5S genes are organized in nucleosomes with repeat lengths similar to those of the bulk chromatin in liver (178 bp) and cultured cells (165 bp); however, 5S gene chromatin in blood cells has a shorter nucleosome repeat (176 bp) than the bulk of the genome in these cells (184 bp). From an analysis of the 5S DNA fragments produced by extensive restriction endonuclease cleavage of chromatin in situ, no special arrangement of the nucleosomes with respect to the sequence of 5S DNA can be detected. The relative abundance of 5S gene multimers follows a Kuhn distribution, with about 57% of all HindIII sites cleaved. This suggests that HindIII sites can be cleaved both in the nucleosome core and linker regions.     

Periodicity of DNA folding in higher order chromatin structures.

Each level of DNA folding in cells corresponds to a distinct chromatin structure. The basic chromatin units, nucleosomes, are arranged into solenoids which form chromatin loops. To characterize better the loop organization of chromatin we have assumed that the accessibility of DNA inside these structures is lower than on the outside and examined the size distribution of high mol. wt DNA fragments obtained from cells and isolated nuclei after digestion with endogenous nuclease or topoisomerase II. The largest discrete fragments obtained contain 300 kbp of DNA. Their further degradation proceeds through another discrete size step of 50 kbp. This suggests that chromatin loops contain approximately 50 kbp of DNA and that they are grouped into hexameric rosettes at the next higher level of chromatin structure. Based upon these observations a model by which the 30 nm chromatin fibre can be folded up into compact metaphase chromosomes is also described.     

Stimulation of homologous recombination through targeted cleavage by chimeric nucleases

Chimeric nucleases that are hybrids between a nonspecific DNA cleavage domain and a zinc finger DNA recognition domain were tested for their ability to find and cleave their target sites in living cells. Both engineered DNA substrates and the nucleases were injected into Xenopus laevis oocyte nuclei, in which DNA cleavage and subsequent homologous recombination were observed. Specific cleavage required two inverted copies of the zinc finger recognition site in close proximity, reflecting the need for dimerization of the cleavage domain. Cleaved DNA molecules were activated for homologous recombination; in optimum conditions, essentially 100% of the substrate recombined, even though the DNA was assembled into chromatin. The original nuclease has an 18-amino-acid linker between the zinc finger and cleavage domains, and this enzyme cleaved in oocytes at paired sites separated by spacers in the range of 6 to 18 bp, with a rather sharp optimum at 8 bp. By shortening the linker, we found that the range of effective site separations could be narrowed significantly. With no intentional linker between the binding and cleavage domains, only binding sites exactly 6 bp apart supported efficient cleavage in oocytes. We also showed that two chimeric enzymes with different binding specificities could collaborate to stimulate recombination when their individual sites were appropriately placed. Because the recognition specificity of zinc fingers can be altered experimentally, this approach holds great promise for inducing targeted recombination in a variety of organisms.     

Liver Nuclear Nadph-Cytochrome P-450 Reductase May be Involved in Redox Cycling of Bleomycin-Fe(III), Oxy Radical Formation and DNA Damage

When NADPH-cytochrome P-450 reductase isolated from rat liver microsomes was aerobically incubated with bleomycin, FeCl₃, NADPH and DNA parallel NADPH and oxygen were consumed and malondialdehyde was formed. A similar parallelism of NADPH- and oxygen-consumption and malondialdehyde formation was observed when ceil nuclei isolated from rat liver were incubated under the same conditions. The formation of malondialdehyde which was identified by HPLC and which was most likely released from oxidative cleavage of deoxyribose of nuclear DNA required oxygen, bleomycin, FeCl₃ and NADPH. This indicates that a nuclear NADPH-enzyme, presumably NADPH-cytochrome P-450 reductase, is able to redox cycle a bleomycin-iron-complex which in the reduced form can activate oxygen to a DNA-damaging reactive species. The data suggest that the activity of this enzyme in the cell nucleus could play an important role in the cytotoxicity of bleomycin in tumor cells.