A longitudinal study of the growth pattern of the maxillary sinus in the pig-tailed macaque (Macaca nemestrina)

The ontogeny of sexual dimorphism in maxillary sinus size in a nonhuman primate was studied longitudinally for a period of 8 years in 25 female and 25 male Macaca nemestrina via lateral cephalograms. The maxillary sinus was traced and its area digitized. The growth of female maxillary sinuses was described with a Gompertz model; the best fit to the male data was obtained by the logistic model. Growth curves and confidence intervals revealed that the sinuses grew in a similar fashion for 3-4 years in both sexes. After this, female sinuses achieved a plateau in their development while male sinuses continued to grow. Confidence intervals suggested that size dimorphism appeared at the age of 6.3 years. Lowess regression indicated growth spurts in both sexes. Females experienced an earlier and smaller spurt than males. Sexual dimorphism in maxillary sinus size seems to represent a combination of differences in velocity and length of growth. This study indicates that growth of the maxillary sinus follows closely the growth in body size. Nevertheless, due to the variation in sinus size in Macaca, it is questionable if body size is the main determinant of maxillary sinus size. It is suggested that Macaca, with its wide geographic range and different environments, is an especially appropriate genus to use to test hypotheses about the evolution of skull pneumatization in primates.     

Age assessment in infant crab-eating monkeys (Macaca fascicularis) based on tooth development

Tooth development was studied in 13 Macaca fascicularis monkeys with known dates of birth. Regular intra-oral examination was carried out and standardized lateral radiographs were collected from 27 until 150 weeks of age under general anaesthesia.
Three stages of tooth development were determined radiographically: onset of crypt formation, onset of mineralization, and crown completion. A fourth stage, the emergence, was determined clinically. Developmental stages were recorded for six mandibular and five maxillary teeth.
The ages of emergence of the permanent teeth and the developmental stages of the third molars showed the largest variation. A significant sex difference with earlier maturation in males was found for the start of crypt formation of the maxillary permanent canines and the maxillary second premolars, and for the start of mineralization of the maxillary permanent canines.
The data provide a tool by which chronological age can be assessed of Macaca fascicularis monkeys between 30 and 80 weeks of age. Owing to an interphase of about one year without significant developmental features in the dentition, age assessment based on tooth development cannot be performed from about 80 to 130 weeks of age. Age assessments are possible for the period between 130 and 150 weeks of age. However, in this period the reliability of the data is lower due to larger time intervals and standard deviations.     

Longitudinal study of craniofacial growth in Macaca fascicularis

This paper is an analysis of normal craniofacial growth in adolescent crab-eating macaques (Macaca fascicularis). Eight female adolescent monkeys were used in this study. Their individual craniofacial growth was studied for a 24-month period utilizing tantalum implants and roentgenographic cephalograms. Throughout the observation period, each monkey consistently showed a class I molar relationship with a good overjet and overbite. The amount of anterior displacement of the maxilla and the mandible was significantly dominant compared to the vertical displacements at every observation period. The midface exhibited a maxillary differential growth pattern in which the premaxilla displaced superiorly and the posterior maxilla moved inferiorly, resulting in a counterclockwise rotation of the entire maxilla. Growth of the lower anterior teeth and alveolar bone compensated for the incremental vertical spaces which were induced by superior displacement of the premaxilla and inferior repositioning of the chin. In addition, the amount of anterior displacement of the upper and lower anterior teeth were significantly larger than that of the premaxilla and the chin. The dentocraniofacial growth pattern in Macaca fascicularis was quite similar to that seen in Macaca mulatta.     

Paranasal pneumatization in extant and fossil Cercopithecoidea

Unlike most primates, extant cercopithecoids lack maxillary sinuses, which are pneumatic spaces in the facial skeleton lateral of the nasal cavity proper. Character state analysis of living cercopithecoids across well-supported topologies suggests that the sinus was lost at the origin of the superfamily, only to have evolved again convergently in extant macaques. Recent work has shown that a) the 'early loss' hypothesis is supported by the lack of any pneumatization in Victoriapithecus, a stem cercopithecoid, b) like extant macaques, the fossil cercopithecine Paradolichopithecus shows evidence of presence of the maxillary sinus (MS), and c) unlike extant colobines, the fossil colobine Libypithecus also possesses a maxillary sinus. To more fully assess the pattern of cercopithecoid sinus evolution, fossil taxa from both subfamilies (Colobinae, Cercopithecinae) were examined both visually and by computed tomography (CT). The observations were evaluated according to standard anatomical criteria for defining sinus spaces, and compared with data from all extant Old World monkey genera. Most taxa examined conformed to the pattern already discerned from extant cercopithecoids. Maxillary sinus absence in Theropithecus oswaldi, Mesopithecus, and Rhinocolobus is typical for all extant cercopithecids except Macaca. The fossil macaque Macaca majori possesses a well-developed maxillary sinus, as do all living species of the genus. Cercopithecoides, on the other hand, differs from all extant colobines in possessing a maxillary sinus. Thus, paranasal pneumatization has reemerged a minimum of two and possibly three times in cercopithecoids. The results suggest that maxillary sinus absence in cercopithecoids is due to suppression, rather than complete loss.     

The term "lateral recess" and craniofacial pneumatization in old world monkeys (Mammalia, Primates, Cercopithecoidea)

The primate superfamily Cercopithecoidea (or Old World monkeys) is characterized by a widespread lack of the maxillary sinus, a paranasal pneumatic space found in most other eutherian mammals. Previous discussions of the distribution of pneumatization in the group, however, have been ambiguous and contradictory, and have been further complicated by discussion of a poorly defined structure named the "lateral recess," linked implicitly to the maxillary sinus. Computed tomography (CT) was applied to dry crania of all cercopithecoid genera to evaluate the morphological relevance of the term "lateral recess." Results suggest that the "lateral recess" is a structural consequence of changes in skull form unrelated to pneumatization. Thus, the term should be abandoned. All Old World monkeys (except the genus Macaca) are found to lack the maxillary sinus, but a previously undescribed bulla, only separated from the nasal cavity anteriorly, was discovered in the Chinese golden monkey Rhinopithecus. If this bulla is related to the paranasal sinuses, it suggests that the initial change in cercopithecoid cranial evolution was a suppression of pneumatic development, which may have been subsequently reversed twice in the history of the group, in Macaca and Rhinopithecus.     

Clinal variation of maxillary sinus volume in Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata)

Macaques (genus Macaca) are unique among cercopithecids in that they possess a maxillary sinus, and among anthropoids in that they demonstrate a relatively weak relationship between the size of this sinus and the cranium. To test the hypothesis that extrinsic factors may contribute to maxillary sinus size variation, a sample of 46 Japanese macaque (M. fuscata) crania from known localities were subjected to computed tomography (CT) imaging, and sinus volume and nasal cavity area were analyzed relative to latitude and temperature variables. The results suggest that the environmental factors are significant determinants of nasal cavity size in Japanese macaques, but that the relationships between the environment and maxillary sinus volume (MSV) are probably a passive consequence of changes in the size of the nasal cavity. The sinus shrinks as the nasal cavity expands, due to an increased need to condition inspired air in colder climates. This in turn suggests that the sinus itself does not contribute significantly to upper respiratory function.     

Sexual dimorphism of the canine roots in theMacaca fuscata

In situ radiographic analysis of the maxillary canines ofMacaca fuscata was conducted on 88 specimens in 44 individuals (23 dry skulls and 21 live animals) in order to examine the number of roots. The left canines were then extracted from ten female skulls for measurement, further radiographic examination, and visual morphological observation. The results showed a clear sexual dimorphism in root morphology: all male canines were clearly distinguished as single-rooted from the radiograph, whereas more than 40% of the female canines were double-rooted. Variation was also found among the single-rooted female canines, in that some of these teeth appeared to have a bifurcated canal. This sexual dimorphism in the number of maxillary canine roots and the individual variation found among the females in root and canal morphology are previously unreported for this species. No observations were attempted on mandibular canines, however, because of the incomplete nature of the sample.     

Canine root development and morphology inMacaca nemestrina

Recently,Yoshikawa andDeguchi (1992) reported an unusually high frequency (40%) of two-rooted maxillary canines inMacaca fuscata females and a complete absence of this trait in males. In the present study, canine root development and morphology was examined using cephalographs taken on 50 male and 50 femaleMacaca nemestrina, and 20 male and 20 femalePapio cynocephalus for comparison with the Japanese macaque. The results showed no double-rooted canines present in either species in the upper or lower canines. This supports the general rule that, among primates, canines possess a single-root. It was further suggested that the two-rooted canines inM. fuscata may be the result of the founder effect, i.e. that the genes for this trait may have been carried by the initial populations when they arrived on the islands sometime during the middle to late Pleistocene.     

Functional and phylogenetic significance of integrated growth and form in occluding monkey canine teeth (Alouatta caraya and Macaca mulatta)

Crown-root lengths in paired apposing, functionally interacting monkey canine teeth (Alouatta caraya and Macaca mulatta) are highly correlated throughout their concurrent development. Regression is rectilinear and growth pattern accretional. The differential growth rate is not significantly different in the sexes within each species during concurrent tooth pair development. These integrated morphological characteristics are adaptations to functional needs imposed by jaw anatomy and masticatory dynamics. Divergence from rectilinearity occurs in the mature male Macaca mulatta with the continued growth of the maxillary canine fang after cessation of growth of the apposing mandibular canine tooth. This altered tooth pair crown-root length relationship is associated with the subordination of mastication in these predominantly piercing and slashing teeth. Species differences in regression are significant and afford insight into possible preadaptive factors determining divergent paths in the evolution of canine tooth sexual dimorphism.     

Ancestral loss of the maxillary sinus in Old World monkeys and independent acquisition in Macaca

Cercopithecoid monkeys are unique among primates in that all species (except macaques) lack a maxillary sinus, an unusual condition among eutherian mammals. Although this uncommon distribution of cranial pneumatization was noted previously, the phylogenetic ramifications have not been investigated fully. Recently, character state optimization analysis of computed tomography (CT) data from extant Old World monkeys suggested that the loss of the sinus may have occurred at the origin of the group, unlike previous hypotheses positing only a reduction in size of the structure. To critically evaluate the "early loss" hypothesis, a recently recovered complete cranium of Victoriapithecus macinnesi from Maboko Island, Kenya, was examined by CT to determine the extent of its cranial pneumatization. This taxon is crucial for evaluating character state evolution in Old World monkeys, due to its phylogenetic position, preceding the cercopithecine/colobine split. CT analysis reveals only cancellous bone lateral of the nasal cavity, indicating that Victoriapithecus does not possess a maxillary sinus. Phylogenetic evaluation of the fossil with extant catarrhine taxa strongly supports the early loss of the sinus in cercopithecoids. The results suggest that the maxillary sinus found in the genus Macaca is not homologous with that of other eutherians, which may provide insights into the origin and function (if any) of the paranasal pneumatizations.     

Growth of the maxillary complex in the rhesus monkey (Macaca mulatta)

The growth of the maxillary complex of 36 rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) was analyzed quantitatively and qualitatively during four defined stages of postnatal development (i.e., infant, juvenile, adolescent, young adult). At each stage, growth was observed during a 24 week period. Since some animals were observed during two successive stages of development, 47 periods of growth were studied. The incremental growth data were collected by superimposing serial cephalograms on cranial base implants and on maxillary implants. The largest increments of growth were observed in the infant animals and were successively less during the other periods studied. The horizontal growth component was more prominent than the vertical component in all age groups. The contribution of sutural growth to the vertical displacement of the maxilla was greater posteriorly, leading to a rotation of the maxillary complex during growth. The occlusal relationship was maintained by selective bone remodeling in conjunction with dentitional migration.     

Aplasia of the maxillary sinus in a Tibetan macaque (Macaca thibetana) with implications for its evolutionary loss and reacquisition

The skull of an adult female Tibetan macaque, Macaca thibetana, was found to completely lack the maxillary sinus (MS). This absence was accompanied by a slight lateral concavity where the ostium should have formed in the MS, a slight drop of the orbital floor, posterior and medial displacement of the zygomaxillary suture, an unusual position of the lacrimal canal, malocclusion with severely worn cheek teeth, and abnormalities in the temporomandibular joints. The facial component was disproportionally large compared with the neurocranium and mandible. This hypertrophic face probably caused the malocclusion and associated anatomical disorders and simultaneously displaced the lacrimal canal posterior to other nasal structures to preclude the possibility of maxillary pneumatization. These modifications in the spatial relationships to nasal structures might help explain the evolutionary loss and reacquisition of the MS in some primate lineages displaying great variations in facial anatomy.     

Interspecies Comparative Genomic Hybridization (I-CGH): A New Twist to Study Animal Tumor Models

Animal models of human diseases are widely used to address questions of tumor development. Selection of a particular animal model depends upon a variety of factors, among them: animal cost, species lifespan, and hardiness; availability of biomolecular and genetic tools for that species; and evolutionary distance from humans. In spite of the growth in genomic data in the past several years, many animal models cannot yet be studied extensively due to gaps in genetic mapping, sequencing and functional analyses. Thus, alternative molecular genetic approaches are needed. We have designed an interspecies comparative genomic hybridization approach to analyze genetic changes in radiation-induced brain tumors in the non-human primate, Macaca mulatta. Using homologies between the primate and human genomes, we adapted widely-available CGH techniques to generate cytogenetic profiles of malignant gliomas in 4 monkey tumors. Losses and gains were projected onto the corresponding homologous chromosomal regions in the human genome, thus directly translating the status of the monkey gliomas into human gene content. This represents a novel method of comparative interspecies cytogenetic mapping that permits simultaneous analysis of genomic imbalance of unknown sequences in disparate species and correlation with potential or known human disease-related genes.     

Paternity exclusion in primates: Two strategies

Two strategies for the use of polymorphic biochemical and serological markers in paternity testing problems in non-human primate groups, where pedigree information is incomplete, are discussed. The positive approach, of attempting to prove paternity, is shown to be impracticable given the levels of detectable genetic variation among primates. The more conventional approach of paternity exclusion is examined and found to be useful under certain conditions. This approach is illustrated using the published data on the levels of biochemical and serological variation in Macaca nemestrina.     

猕猴颊齿大小的性差研究初报

对28例太行山成年猕猴(♂10,♀18)的上、下颌颊齿齿冠面积进行测量。运用SPSS 10.0统计软件的多变量分析,选择有关颊齿变量建立性别判别函数。结果表明:猕猴颊齿具有明显的性差。选择不同的变量和选择不同的判别函数其性别正确判别率不同。上、下颌颊齿的性差有一定差异。使用逐步判别法建立判别函数,其性别正确判别率上颌颊齿为89.3%,下颌颊齿为92.3%。     

Paralysis due to a glomangioma in a Macaca mulatta

A glomangioma at the 6-7 thoracic intervertebral space caused compression of the spinal cord with posterior paralysis in an irradiated 20-year-old female rhesus monkey (Macaca mulatta). Glomangiomas are tumors of arterial-venous shunts, are rare and have only been reported in irradiated rhesus monkeys.     

Patterns of dental wear and the role of the canine in Cercopithecinae.

The importance of dental wear patterns in understanding masticatory functions in primates has long been appreciated. However, studies of wear patterns among populations of nonhuman primates are few. The purpose of this investigation is to establish the developmental aspects of dental wear in the Cercopithecinae and to describe certain relevant morphological traits. Studies were made of dental casts from 200 primate specimens of Macaca nemestrina, Macaca mulatta, and Papio cynocephalus. These casts were taken at four-month intervals, beginning at two years of age and continuing over a period of six to seven years. The wear pattern starts with the rounding and eventual flattening of the protoconid and protocone of the erupted first molars. Once this stage is reached, the hypoconid and metaconid of the mandibular, and the hypocone and paracone of the maxillary molars are rounded and eventually flattened. This pattern is maintained until the cusp tips are removed and the dentin exposed, however, the entoconid and metacone are not subjected to significant wear at this stage. Analysis of these dental casts and museum specimens has provided data on the development of dental wear during the maturation of these primates. The distribution of forces acting upon the teeth produce diagnostic patterns of wear, which provide evidence of the force location and magnitude. In examining the data, the hypothesis of canine guidance and its limitation of mandibular motion was evaluated. Specimens whose canines were removed demonstrate that the canines play no significant role in the development or maintenance of dental wear planes.     

Talon cusp from two archaic period cemeteries in North America: implications for comparative evolutionary morphology

Talon cusps are rare morphological features of the anterior dentition that represent a spectrum of lingual cingulum diversity. In this paper, talon cusp prevalence is described in two Archaic period North American samples, Windover Pond (Florida) and Buckeye Knoll (Texas). Given the early date of these cemeteries (~7500 BP), these specimens represent the oldest reported cases of lingual talon cusp in the New World, and perhaps globally. Windover preserves three cases of talon cusp (representing three different individuals) affecting the permanent maxillary lateral incisors. The sample frequencies were 1.8% and 3.1% for the left and right maxillary lateral incisors, respectively. Buckeye Knoll preserves four cases of talon cusp representing three individuals. Talon cusps at this site were distributed throughout the maxillary anterior dentition, including a permanent maxillary central incisor, bilateral permanent maxillary lateral incisors, and a deciduous maxillary lateral incisor. The multicomponent nature of this site complicates sample frequency calculation with by-tooth estimates ranging from 3.6% to 25%. This paper discusses the difficulties with comparative frequency estimation, resulting from a proliferation of terminology that is discipline-specific. Understanding the evolutionary basis and significance of dental morphological variation requires an inclusive approach to the comparative literature that focuses on homology within the context of odontogenetic process.     

Variation in maxillary sinus anatomy among platyrrhine monkeys

Variations in the maxillary sinus anatomy of extant and fossil catarrhine primates have been extensively examined using computed tomography (CT), and have potential utility for phylogenetic analyses. This approach has also been used to demonstrate its anatomical variation in eight of the 16 extant genera of platyrrhines and the absence of the sinus in Saimiri and Cacajao. We used this approach to evaluate the three-dimensional anatomy of the maxillary sinus in all extant platyrrhine genera, and here argue the phylogenic implications of this variation. This study confirms, for the most part, previous CT studies and augments them with the six genera not studied previously: Ateles, Lagothrix, Callithrix, Cebuella, Pithecia and Chiropotes. The entire maxilla is pneumatized by the sinus in the atelines, Cebus, and Callicebus, whereas the sinus pneumatizes only the medial part of the maxilla in the callitrichines and Aotus. Pithecia has a unique conformation in which the maxillary sinus and the expanded inferior meatus pneumatize the posteromedial and anterolateral parts of the entire maxilla, respectively. Chiropotes has no sinus, and the inferior meatus possibly expands into the area between the middle meatus and medial surface of the maxilla to disturb sinus formation, as in the case of its close relative Cacajao. Finally, we argue that the sinus that pneumatizes the entire maxilla is a primitive feature in extant platyrrhines and was probably shared by the last common ancestor of the anthropoids.     

Primate (Macaca fascicularis) transferrin: isolation and partial characterization

The serum transferrin from the primate, Macaca fascicularis is isolated by a purification protocol consisting of ammonium sulphate precipitation and column chromatography. The hexose (galactose + mannose) content of Macaca transferrin is 4.7 mole per mole of protein. Quantitative determination of the sialic acid content shows that there are two sialic acid residues per molecule of Macaca transferrin. This conclusion is supported by the neuraminidase treatment of Macaca transferrin, in which there is a 2-step decrease in electrophoretic mobility. Monoferric Macaca transferrins with Fe3+ selectively labelled at the C- and N-terminal sites (TfFec and FeNTf) are prepared at pH 5.5 and 8.5 using ferric dinitrilotriacetate [Fe(NTA)2] chelate and ferrous ammonium sulphate, respectively.