Best practices for improved governance of coral reef marine protected areas

Coral reef marine protected areas (MPA) are widely distributed around the globe for social and ecological reasons. Relatively few of these MPAs are well managed. This review examines the governance of coral reef MPAs and the means to improve coral reef MPA management. It highlights common governance challenges, such as confused goals, conflict, and unrealistic attempts to scale up beyond institutional capacity. Recommendations, based on field experience and empirical evidence from around the world, are made for best practices at various stages of MPA implementation.

Connectivity and resilience of coral reef metapopulations in marine protected areas: matching empirical efforts to predictive needs

Design and decision-making for marine protected areas (MPAs) on coral reefs require prediction of MPA effects with population models. Modeling of MPAs has shown how the persistence of metapopulations in systems of MPAs depends on the size and spacing of MPAs, and levels of fishing outside the MPAs. However, the pattern of demographic connectivity produced by larval dispersal is a key uncertainty in those modeling studies. The information required to assess population persistence is a dispersal matrix containing the fraction of larvae traveling to each location from each location, not just the current number of larvae exchanged among locations. Recent metapopulation modeling research with hypothetical dispersal matrices has shown how the spatial scale of dispersal, degree of advection versus diffusion, total larval output, and temporal and spatial variability in dispersal influence population persistence. Recent empirical studies using population genetics, parentage analysis, and geochemical and artificial marks in calcified structures have improved the understanding of dispersal. However, many such studies report current self-recruitment (locally produced settlement/settlement from elsewhere), which is not as directly useful as local retention (locally produced settlement/total locally released), which is a component of the dispersal matrix. Modeling of biophysical circulation with larval particle tracking can provide the required elements of dispersal matrices and assess their sensitivity to flows and larval behavior, but it requires more assumptions than direct empirical methods. To make rapid progress in understanding the scales and patterns of connectivity, greater communication between empiricists and population modelers will be needed. Empiricists need to focus more on identifying the characteristics of the dispersal matrix, while population modelers need to track and assimilate evolving empirical results.     

Response of the coral reef benthos and herbivory to fishery closure management and the 1998 ENSO disturbance

The hypothesis that herbivory is higher in areas without fishing and will increase the rate at which hard coral communities return to pre-disturbance conditions was tested in and out of the marine protected areas (MPA) of Kenya after the 1998 El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO). Herbivory was estimated by assay and biomass methods, and both methods indicated higher herbivory in fishery closures. Despite higher herbivory, the effect of the ENSO disturbance was larger within these closures, with reefs undergoing a temporary transition from dominance by hard and soft coral to a temporary dominance of turf and erect algae that ended in the dominance of calcifying algae, massive Porites, Pocillopora and a few faviids six years after the disturbance. The fished reefs changed the least but had a greater cover of turf and erect algae and sponge shortly after the disturbance. Higher herbivory in the fishery closures reduced the abundance and persistence of herbivore-susceptible erect algae and created space and appropriate substratum for recruiting corals. Nonetheless, other post-settlement processes may have had strong influences such that annual rates of coral recovery were low (～2%) and not different between the management regimes. Recovery, as defined as and measured by the return to pre-disturbance coral cover and the dominant taxa, was slower in fishery closures than unmanaged reefs.     

Community involvement in management for maintaining coral reef resilience and biodiversity in southern Caribbean marine protected areas

Climate change is posing new challenges to conservation because management policies on protected coral reefs are less effective than they were before the current ecosystem degradation. Coral reefs, the most diverse and complex marine ecosystem provide economic services for millions, but are seriously threatened worldwide because reef-building corals are experiencing bleaching phenomena and a steady decline in abundance. The resources of a Marine Protected Area (MPA) in Cartagena, Colombia, are in constant decline, despite a current management plan and on-site staff, urging new conservation actions. A multidisciplinary team gathered to evaluate management effectiveness including biophysical, socioeconomic and governance indicators. Coral cover and fish diversity and abundance were low both inside and outside the MPA, which suggests a limited efficiency of management. Currently, the MPA is a reef with low coral cover and high algae cover as well as large dead coral areas, which are generally signs of highly degraded reef habitats. Live coral cover in the MPA was represented by pioneer coral species such as Agaricia tenuifolia and Porites astreoides. Nonetheless, 35% of the scleractinian species sampled in the area harbored more than one zooxanthellae symbiont, which suggests potential resistance and resilience against coral bleaching. Maintenance of trophic structure and functional diversity is an important endeavor that should be a priority for management in order to allow ecosystem resilience. Social and governance indicators showed low-income levels and few opportunities for communities living in and around the park, low governability, weak communication among stakeholders and with authorities at different levels. As a result, problems related to over exploitation of resources were commonplace in the MPA. These results reflect low adaptive capacity of communities to comply with restrictive conservation rules, showing that establishment of a protected area is a necessary but insufficient condition to guarantee conservation goals. Ignoring the role of local communities only will exacerbate the problems associated with natural resources. Involvement of communities in strategic ecosystems management appears to be a requisite to improve effectiveness of protected areas, and participatory strategies, such as co-management, offer opportunities to improve governability while letting communities adapt to MPA needs.     

The selection and design of marine protected areas: Australia as a case study

Recently there has been increased interest in the use of Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) as tools for the conservation of marine habitats and species. This has resulted in the declaration of many MPAs around the world. Despite this activity there have been few tests of hypotheses about the design criteria for selection and management of these areas, resulting in a haphazard and ad hoc selection of protected areas, with conflicting and inconsistent terminology and objectives. The application of appropriately tested scientific information to the design of MPAs will increase the likelihood of success in the future.To 1st January 1992, 267 MPAs had been declared in Australia, covering a total area of ca 400 019 km². The history of their declaration has been sporadic and uneven. Conflicts over State and Federal legislation and, within states, conflicts over jurisdiction among agencies caused by overlapping responsibilities, have at times slowed the declaration of MPAs. In this paper, the history of MPAs in Australia is used as a case study to discuss the problems, both biological and administrative, of declaring MPAs.     

Effects of habitat,wave exposure,and marine protected area status on coral reef fish assemblages in the Hawaiian archipelago

The relationships between fish assemblages, their associated habitat, and degree of protection from fishing were evaluated over a broad spatial scale throughout the main Hawaiian islands. Most fish assemblage characteristics showed positive responses to protection whether it was physical (e.g. habitat complexity), biological (e.g. coral cover growth forms), or human-induced (e.g. marine reserves). Fish biomass was lowest in areas of direct wave exposure and highest in areas partially sheltered from swells. Higher values for fish species richness, number of individuals, biomass, and diversity were observed in locations with higher substrate complexity. Areas completely protected from fishing had distinct fish assemblages with higher standing stock and diversity than areas where fishing was permitted or areas that were partially protected from fishing. Locations influenced by customary stewardship harbored fish biomass that was equal to or greater than that of no-take protected areas. Marine protected areas in the main Hawaiian islands with high habitat complexity, moderate wave disturbance, a high percentage of branching and/or lobate coral coupled with legal protection from fishing pressure had higher values for most fish assemblage characteristics.     

Behavioral thermoregulatory abilities of tropical coral reef fishes: a comparison with temperate freshwater and marine fishes

Synopsis Eight species in six different families of tropical marine reef fishes from the Indo-West Pacific region (Naso lituratus, Zebrasoma.flavescens, Balistes fuscus, B. vidua, Forcipiger longirostris, Echidna zebra, Cromileptes altivelis, Canthigaster jactator) were tested for ability to thermoregulate behaviorally in electronic shuttleboxes. All of these species preferred mean temperatures between 20 and 30°C, but differed considerably in thermoregulatory precision. All species avoided lethal high or low temperatures (i.e., they did not die during the tests), and some species thermoregulated as precisely as temperate species. Some temperate species prefer higher temperatures (above 30°C) than do these tropical reef species.     

Marine protected areas and the coral reefs of traditional settlements in the Exumas,Bahamas

This paper is about modeling the perceived social impacts of three proposed marine protected areas (MPAs), each designed to protect coral reefs. The paper argues that shared perceptions of these impacts have resulted in different community-level responses to these MPA proposals. The study is uniquely situated in the Bahamas where the government has approved setting aside 30 No-take MPAs (including three under study here) to protect the coastal marine environment. The paper is based on 572 interviews conducted during eight field trips with members of six traditional settlements in the Exuma Islands and Cays in the central Bahamas. Overall, 34% of the census population of these settlements was interviewed at least once. Key findings are that an MPA can impact in either positive or negative ways (a) community agency by the process of siting, (b) community resilience by eliminating or supporting some components of their traditional adaptations to social and natural environments, and (c) community identity by precluding or protecting customary marine access. MPA impacts to local communities determine whether those communities will support or resist proposed MPAs.     

The structuring role of microhabitat type in coral degradation zones: a case study with marine nematodes from Kenya and Zanzibar

Nematode genus assemblages were identified from four locations in coral degradation zones (CDZs) along the African east coast: Watamu and Tiwi Beach (Kenya) and Matemwe and Makunduchi (Zanzibar). Three microhabitat types were distinguished: coralline sediment, coral gravel and coral fragments. Nematode community composition was comparable to that of other studies dealing with the same habitat. The presence of a common genus pool in CDZs was reflected in the considerable similarities between samples. The addition of coral fragments as a habitat for nematodes resulted in an increased importance of taxa typical for coarse sediments and large substrata. Local and regional turnover were of the same order of magnitude. The structuring effect of microhabitat type clearly overrode the effect on a local and regional scale. Differences in sediment characteristics were more important in structuring the nematode assemblages than differences between the coralline sediment and coral fragments. No effect related to the three-dimensional structure of coral fragments was found. Differences between nematode assemblages in the coralline sediment and on coral fragments were attributed to the exposed nature of the latter habitat, its large surface area and its microbial or algal cover. Differences in available food sources were reflected in nematode trophic composition.     

Diving behavior and movements of juvenile hawksbill turtles Eretmochelys imbricata on a Caribbean coral reef

As historically abundant spongivores, hawksbill turtles Eretmochelys imbricata likely played a key ecological role on coral reefs. However, coral reefs are now experiencing global declines and many hawksbill populations are critically reduced. For endangered species, tracking movement has been recognized as fundamental to management. Since movements in marine vertebrates encompass three dimensions, evaluation of diving behavior and range is required to characterize marine turtle habitat. In this study, habitat use of hawksbill turtles on a Caribbean coral reef was elucidated by quantifying diel depth utilization and movements in relation to the boundaries of marine protected areas. Time depth recorders (TDRs) and ultrasonic tags were deployed on 21 Cayman Islands hawksbills, ranging in size from 26.4 to 58.4 cm straight carapace length. Study animals displayed pronounced diel patterns of diurnal activity and nocturnal resting, where diurnal dives were significantly shorter, deeper, and more active. Mean diurnal dive depth (±SD) was 8 ± 5 m, range 2–20 m, mean nocturnal dive depth was 5 ± 5 m, range 1–14 m, and maximum diurnal dive depth was 43 ± 27 m, range 7–91 m. Larger individuals performed significantly longer dives. Body mass was significantly correlated with mean dive depth for nocturnal but not diurnal dives. However, maximum diurnal dive depth was significantly correlated with body mass, suggesting partitioning of vertical habitat by size. Thus, variable dive capacity may reduce intraspecific competition and provide resistance to degradation in shallow habitats. Larger hawksbills may also represent important predators on deep reefs, creating a broad ecological footprint over a range of depths. Communicated by Biology Editor Dr Mark McCormick     

The distribution of fishes on the outer reef slopes of Aldabra (Indian Ocean) in relation to bottom temperatures

Synopsis Ninety six fish belonging to 19 species were taken by deep water line fishing off Aldabra. Analysis of the results shows how various factors such as hooking time changed with depth. The change of bottom temperature with depth was examined. The zone between 100 m and 150 m was found to have considerable temperature variations. The distribution of some serranids and lutjanids appeared to be stratified though there was usually overlap in the range of adjacent species. The results are compared with previous line-fishing off the South coast of Aldabra from deeper water and other areas of the western Indian Ocean.     

Larval retention and connectivity among populations of corals and reef fishes: history,advances and challenges

The extent of larval dispersal on coral reefs has important implications for the persistence of coral reef metapopulations, their resilience and recovery from an increasing array of threats, and the success of protective measures. This article highlights a recent dramatic increase in research effort and a growing diversity of approaches to the study of larval retention within (self-recruitment) and dispersal among (connectivity) isolated coral reef populations. Historically, researchers were motivated by alternative hypotheses concerning the processes limiting populations and structuring coral reef assemblages, whereas the recent impetus has come largely from the need to incorporate dispersal information into the design of no-take marine protected area (MPA) networks. Although the majority of studies continue to rely on population genetic approaches to make inferences about dispersal, a wide range of techniques are now being employed, from small-scale larval tagging and paternity analyses, to large-scale biophysical circulation models. Multiple approaches are increasingly being applied to cross-validate and provide more realistic estimates of larval dispersal. The vast majority of empirical studies have focused on corals and fishes, where evidence for both extremely local scale patterns of self-recruitment and ecologically significant connectivity among reefs at scales of tens of kilometers (and in some cases hundreds of kilometers) is accumulating. Levels of larval retention and the spatial extent of connectivity in both corals and fishes appear to be largely independent of larval duration or reef size, but may be strongly influenced by geographic setting. It is argued that high levels of both self-recruitment and larval import can contribute to the resilience of reef populations and MPA networks, but these benefits will erode in degrading reef environments.     

Parasites in marine protected areas: success and specificity of monogeneans

The effect of a marine protected area on the Lamellodiscus spp. monogenean community was tested by comparing the communities of parasites of Diplodus sargus inside and outside of the area. A total of 104 D. sargus were dissected harbouring 1280 monogeneans from the genus Lamellodiscus and belonging to 11 species. No modification in the global parasite community linked with the protection of the host populations was revealed. The most abundant and less specific parasite species, Lamellodiscus elegans , however, increased its abundance in the protected area. A significant relationship was found between parasite host range and the percentage of infected hosts. A significant relationship also occurred between epidemiological and genetic distances for the parasite species found. The results are discussed in term of parasite success and specificity and the importance of taking into account parasitism in the biological conservation of hosts.     

The impacts of tourism on coral reef conservation awareness and support in coastal communities in Belize

Marine recreational tourism is one of a number of threats to the Belize Barrier Reef but, conversely, represents both a motivation and source of resources for its conservation. The growth of tourism in Belize has resulted in the fact that many coastal communities are in varying stages of a socio-economic shift from dependence on fishing to dependence on tourism. In a nation becoming increasingly dependent on the health of its coral reef ecosystems for economic prosperity, a shift from extractive uses to their preservation is both necessary and logical. Through examining local perception data in five coastal communities in Belize, each attracting different levels of coral reef related tourism, this analysis is intended to explore the relationship between tourism development and local coral reef conservation awareness and support. The results of the analysis show a positive correlation between tourism development and coral reef conservation awareness and support in the study communities. The results also show a positive correlation between tourism development and local perceptions of quality of life, a trend that is most likely the source of the observed relationship between tourism and conservation. The study concludes that, because the observed relationship may be dependent on continued benefits from tourism as opposed to a perceived crisis in coral reef health, Belize must pay close attention to tourism impacts in the future. Failure to do this could result in a destructive feedback loop that would contribute to the degradation of the reef and, ultimately, Belize’s diminished competitiveness in the ecotourism market.

Connectivity,biodiversity conservation and the design of marine reserve networks for coral reefs

Networks of no-take reserves are important for protecting coral reef biodiversity from climate change and other human impacts. Ensuring that reserve populations are connected to each other and non-reserve populations by larval dispersal allows for recovery from disturbance and is a key aspect of resilience. In general, connectivity between reserves should increase as the distance between them decreases. However, enhancing connectivity may often tradeoff against a network’s ability to representatively sample the system’s natural variability. This “representation” objective is typically measured in terms of species richness or diversity of habitats, but has other important elements (e.g., minimizing the risk that multiple reserves will be impacted by catastrophic events). Such representation objectives tend to be better achieved as reserves become more widely spaced. Thus, optimizing the location, size and spacing of reserves requires both an understanding of larval dispersal and explicit consideration of how well the network represents the broader system; indeed the lack of an integrated theory for optimizing tradeoffs between connectivity and representation objectives has inhibited the incorporation of connectivity into reserve selection algorithms. This article addresses these issues by (1) updating general recommendations for the location, size and spacing of reserves based on emerging data on larval dispersal in corals and reef fishes, and on considerations for maintaining genetic diversity; (2) using a spatial analysis of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park to examine potential tradeoffs between connectivity and representation of biodiversity and (3) describing a framework for incorporating environmental fluctuations into the conceptualization of the tradeoff between connectivity and representation, and that expresses both in a common, demographically meaningful currency, thus making optimization possible.     

Abundance and distribution of inshore fish in fished and protected areas in Lake Kariba,Zimbabwe

Abundance and size distribution of inshore fish populations was assessed by fishing with standard Lundgren survey gill-nets in areas open to fishing and reserved areas that are protected from fishing activities.The direct gradient analysis technique — Detrended Canonical Correspondence Analysis — revealed that fish abundance and their composition in Lake Kariba are strongly structured by lake morphometry.The comparison between fished and reserve areas showed that there was a significant reduction in mean length of commercially fished species in the fished areas and the size distribution curves were skewed, lacking small and large length classes. There was a higher abundance of non-commercial species in the fished areas. It was also revealed that the mochokid Synodontis zambezensis Peters 1852, was the most abundant species and was present at all depths sampled in all the stations.There were indications that non-commercial species were important in terms of abundance in the fished areas. These included S. zambezenzis, Schilbe intermedius (Ruppell, 1832) and other smaller species. This was attributed to them being selected against in the gill-nets.     

Proposal of a marine protected area surveillance system against illegal vessels using image sensing and image processing

Conservation of marine fauna is a great concern in the present days for a number of reasons. Implementation of marine protected area is considered to be a common practice for the conservation of marine fauna at a specific area. However, in many cases, the present management system of the marine protected areas fails to protect marine fauna. This paper proposes a marine protected area surveillance system that uses airborne image sensing and digital image processing to monitor the marine protected area against illegal vessels efficiently. The system architecture, including the system structure, execution planning, and algorithm, has been described for the proposed surveillance system. It is apparent from this study that the currently proposed marine protected area surveillance system is better than the previously proposed ones.     

A simple system for monitoring biodiversity in protected areas of a developing country

The achievements of initiatives to strengthen biodiversity conservation in developing countries may be difficult to assess, since most countries have no system for monitoring biodiversity. This paper describes a simple and cost-effective, field-based biodiversity monitoring system developed specifically for areas where specialist staff is lacking. We discuss the preliminary lessons learned from protected areas in the Philippines. Whilst the monitoring system aims to identify trends in biodiversity and its uses so as to guide management action, it also promotes the participation of local people in the management, stimulates discussions about conservation amongst stakeholders and builds the capacity of park staff and communities in management skills. In addition, it seeks to provide people with direction regarding the aims of protected areas, and reinforces the consolidation of existing livelihoods through strengthening community-based resource management systems. The field methods are: (1) standardised recording of routine observations, (2) fixed point photographing, (3) line transect survey, and (4) focus group discussion. Both bio-physical and socio-economic data are used and given equal importance. The system can be sustained using locally available resources. The approach is useful in countries embarking on shared management of park resources with local communities, where rural people depend on use of natural ecosystems, and where the economic resources for park management are limited. We hope this paper will encourage other countries to develop their own biodiversity monitoring system, letting its development become a means for capacity building whilst at the same time supporting the creation of ownership.