Comparison of the Photosynthetic Yield of Cyanobacteria and Green Algae: Different Methods Give Different Answers

The societal importance of renewable carbon-based commodities and energy carriers has elicited a particular interest for high performance phototrophic microorganisms. Selection of optimal strains is often based on direct comparison under laboratory conditions of maximal growth rate or additional valued features such as lipid content. Instead of reporting growth rate in culture, estimation of photosynthetic efficiency (quantum yield of PSII) by pulse-amplitude modulated (PAM) fluorimetry is an often applied alternative method. Here we compared the quantum yield of PSII and the photonic yield on biomass for the green alga Chlorella sorokiniana 211-8K and the cyanobacterium Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803. Our data demonstrate that the PAM technique inherently underestimates the photosynthetic efficiency of cyanobacteria by rendering a high F₀ and a low F_M, specifically after the commonly practiced dark pre-incubation before a yield measurement. Yet when comparing the calculated biomass yield on light in continuous culture experiments, we obtained nearly equal values for both species. Using mutants of Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803, we analyzed the factors that compromise its PAM-based quantum yield measurements. We will discuss the role of dark respiratory activity, fluorescence emission from the phycobilisomes, and the Mehler-like reaction. Based on the above observations we recommend that PAM measurements in cyanobacteria are interpreted only qualitatively.     

Carbon Concentration Mechanism(s) in Unicellular Green Algae and Cyanobacteria

Unicellular green algae and cyanobacteria have mechanism(s) to actively concentrate dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) into the cells, only if they are grown with air levels of CO₂. The DIC concentration mechanisms are environmental adaptations to actively transport and accumulate inorganic carbon into the chloroplasts of green algae or into the carboxysomes of cyanobacteria. The current working model of cyanobacterial carbon concentration mechanism consists of at least two basic components: an active C_i transport system and a Rubisco-rich polyhedral carboxysome. In case of unicellular green algae, the working model for DIC concentration mechanism includes several isoforms of carbonic anhydrase (CA), and ATPase driven active bicarbonate transporters at the plasmalemma and at the inner chloroplast envelopes. In the past twenty years, significant progress has been made in isolating and characterizing the isoforms of carbonic anhydrase. However, active transporters are yet to be characterized. This mini-review summarizes the current status of research on DIC-pumps including its significance and possible application to increase the productivity of plants of economic importance.     

Role of Soil pH in the Development of Enhanced Biodegradation of Fenamiphos

Repeated treatment with fenamiphos (ethyl 4-methylthio-m-tolyl isopropylphosphoramidate) resulted in enhanced biodegradation of this nematicide in two United Kingdom soils with a high pH (≥7.7). In contrast, degradation of fenamiphos was slow in three acidic United Kingdom soils (pH 4.7 to 6.7), and repeated treatments did not result in enhanced biodegradation. Rapid degradation of fenamiphos was observed in two Australian soils (pH 6.7 to 6.8) in which it was no longer biologically active against plant nematodes. Enhanced degrading capability was readily transferred from Australian soil to United Kingdom soils, but only those with a high pH were able to maintain this capability for extended periods of time. This result was confirmed by fingerprinting bacterial communities by 16S rRNA gene profiling of extracted DNA. Only United Kingdom soils with a high pH retained bacterial DNA bands originating from the fenamiphos-degrading Australian soil. A degrading consortium was enriched from the Australian soil that utilized fenamiphos as a sole source of carbon. The 16S rRNA banding pattern (determined by denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis) from the isolated consortium migrated to the same position as the bands from the Australian soil and those from the enhanced United Kingdom soils in which the Australian soil had been added. When the bands from the consortium and the soil were sequenced and compared they showed between 97 and 100% sequence identity, confirming that these groups of bacteria were involved in degrading fenamiphos in the soils. The sequences obtained showed similarity to those from the genera Pseudomonas, Flavobacterium, and Caulobacter. In the Australian soils, two different degradative pathways operated simultaneously: fenamiphos was converted to fenamiphos sulfoxide (FSO), which was hydrolyzed to the corresponding phenol (FSO-OH) or was hydrolyzed directly to fenamiphos phenol. In the United Kingdom soils in which enhanced degradation had been induced, fenamiphos was oxidized to FSO and then hydrolyzed to FSO-OH, but direct conversion to fenamiphos phenol did not occur.     

Biodegradation of the Pyrethroid Pesticide Esfenvalerate by Marine-Derived Fungi

Esfenvalerate biodegradation by marine-derived fungi is reported here. Esfenvalerate (S,S-fenvalerate) and its main metabolites [3-phenoxybenzaldehyde (PBAld), 3-phenoxybenzoic acid (PBAc), 3-phenoxybenzyl alcohol (PBAlc), and 2-(4-chlorophenyl)-3-methylbutyric acid (CLAc)] were quantitatively analyzed by a validated method in triplicate experiments. All the strains (Penicillium raistrickii CBMAI 931, Aspergillus sydowii CBMAI 935, Cladosporium sp. CBMAI 1237, Microsphaeropsis sp. CBMAI 1675, Acremonium sp. CBMAI 1676, Westerdykella sp. CBMAI 1679, and Cladosporium sp. CBMAI 1678) were able to degrade esfenvalerate, however, with different efficiencies. Initially, 100 mg L^?1 esfenvalerate (Sumidan 150SC) was added to each culture in 3 % malt liquid medium. Residual esfenvalerate (64.8–95.2 mg L^?1) and the concentrations of PBAc (0.5–7.4 mg L^?1), ClAc (0.1–7.5 mg L^?1), and PBAlc (0.2 mg L^?1) were determined after 14 days. In experiments after 7, 14, 21, and 28 days of biodegradation with the three most efficient strains, increasing concentrations of the toxic compounds PBAc (2.7–16.6 mg L^?1, after 28 days) and CLAc (6.6–13.4 mg L^?1, after 28 days) were observed. A biodegradation pathway was proposed, based on HPLC-ToF results. The biodegradation pathway includes PBAld, PBAc, PBAlc, ClAc, 2-hydroxy-2-(3-phenoxyphenyl)acetonitrile, 3-(hydroxyphenoxy)benzoic acid, and methyl 3-phenoxy benzoate. Marine-derived fungi were able to biodegrade esfenvalerate in a commercial formulation and showed their potential for future bioremediation studies in contaminated soils and water bodies.     

Effect of Interactions Among Algae on Nitrogen Fixation by Blue-Green Algae (Cyanobacteria) in Flooded Soils

Nitrogen fixation (C₂H₂ reduction) by algae in flooded soil was limited by interactions within the algal community. Nitrogen fixation by either indigenous algae or Tolypothrix tenuis was reduced severalfold by a dense suspension of the green alga Nephrocytium sp. Similarly, interactions between the nitrogen-fixing alga (cyanobacterium) Aulosira 68 and natural densities of indigenous algae limited nitrogen-fixing activity in one of two soils examined. This was demonstrated by developing a variant of Aulosira 68 that was resistant to the herbicide simetryne at concentrations that prevented development of indigenous algae. More nitrogen was fixed by the resistant variant in flooded soil containing herbicide than was fixed in herbicide-free soil by either the indigenous algae or indigenous algae plus the parent strain of Aulosira. Interference from indigenous algae may hamper the development of nitrogen-fixing algae introduced into rice fields in attempts to increase biological nitrogen fixation.     

Toxicant Induced Changes on Delayed Fluorescence Decay Kinetics of Cyanobacteria and Green Algae: A Rapid and Sensitive Biotest

Algal tests have developed into routine tools for testing toxicity of pollutants in aquatic environments. Meanwhile, in addition to algal growth rates, an increasing number of fluorescence based methods are used for rapid and sensitive toxicity measures. The present study stresses the suitability of delayed fluorescence (DF) as a promising parameter for biotests. DF is based on the recombination fluorescence at the reaction centre of photosystem II, which is emitted only by photosynthetically active cells. We analyzed the effects of three chemicals (3-(3,4-dichlorophenyl)-1,1-dimethylurea (DCMU), 3,5 Dichlorophenol (3,5 DCP) and copper) on the shape of the DF decay kinetics for potential use in phytoplankton toxicity tests. The short incubation tests were done with four phytoplankton species, with special emphasis on the cyanobacterium Microcystis aeruginosa. All species exhibited a high sensitivity to DCMU, but cyanobacteria were more affected by copper and less by 3,5 DCP than the tested green algae. Analyses of changes in the DF decay curve in response to the added chemicals indicated the feasibility of the DF decay approach as a rapid and sensitive testing tool.     

Bioaccumulation of Heavy Metals by Green Algae

The biosorption of metal ions (Cr⁺³, , Cu⁺², and Ni⁺²) on two algal blooms (designated HD-103 and HD-104) collected locally was investigated as a function of the initial metal ion concentration. The main constituent of HD-103 is Cladophora sp., while Spirulina sp. is present significantly in the bloom HD-104. Algal biomass HD-103 exhibited the highest Cu⁺² uptake capacity (819 mg/g). This bloom adsorbed Ni⁺² (504 mg/g), Cr⁺³ (347 mg/g), and (168 mg/g). Maximum of Ni⁺² (1108 mg/g) is taken by HD-104. This species takes up 306, 202, and 576 mg/g Cr⁺³, , and Cu⁺², respectively. Equilibrium data fit very well to both the Langmuir and the Freundlich isotherm models. The sorption process followed the Freundlich model better. Pseudo-first-order kinetic model could describe the kinetic data. Infrared (IR) spectroscopic data were employed to identify the site(s) of bonding. It was found that phosphate and peptide moieties participate in the metal uptake by bloom HD-103. In the case of bloom HD-104, carboxylate and phosphate are responsible for the metal uptake. The role of protein in metal uptake by HD-103 was investigated using polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis.     

Biodegradation of Phenanthrene by a Bacillus Species

A bacterial strain capable of utilizing phenanthrene as sole source of carbon was isolated from soil and identified as a Bacillus sp. The organism also utilized naphthalene, biphenyl, anthracene, and other aromatic compounds as growth substrates. The organism degraded phenanthrene through the intermediate formation of 1-hydroxy-2-naphthoic acid, which was further metabolized via o-phthalate by a protocatechuate pathway, as evidenced by oxygen uptake and enzymatic studies. Received: 1 December 1999 / Accepted: 5 January 2000     

Biodegradation of Carbaryl by a Micrococcus Species

A bacterium capable of utilizing carbaryl as sole source of carbon was isolated from garden soil and identified as a Micrococcus species. The organism also utilized carbofuran, naphthalene, 1-naphthol, and several other aromatic compounds as growth substrates. The organism degraded carbaryl by hydrolysis to yield 1-naphthol and methylamine. 1-Naphthol was further metabolized via salicylate by a gentisate pathway, as evidenced by oxygen uptake and enzymatic studies. Received: 27 November 2000 / Accepted: 29 December 2000     

N2O Evolution by Green Algae

Evidence is presented here that axenic cultures of Chlorella, Scenedesmus, Coelastrum, and Chlorococcum spp. evolve N₂O when grown on NO₂⁻, showing that the Chlorophyceae are a source of N₂O in aquatic systems.     

两种丝状绿藻对水体中低浓度苯酚的去除作用研究

研究了两种丝状绿藻,脆弱刚毛藻(Cladophora fracta)和长形水绵(Spirogyra longata)对水体中低浓度苯酚(≤6mg·mL-1)的去除作用。结果表明,在不考虑交互作用下,脆弱刚毛藻和长形水绵对苯酚的去除率分别为86%和75.63%,脆弱刚毛藻去除苯酚试验中,温度是主要影响因素,长形水绵去除苯酚试验中,处理时间是主要影响因素;在考虑交互作用下,脆弱刚毛藻和长形水绵对苯酚的去除率分别为88.98%和75.63%,脆弱刚毛藻去除苯酚试验中,温度是主要影响因素,长形水绵去除苯酚试验中,处理时间是主要影响因素;脆弱刚毛藻去除苯酚实验中各因素最优水平组合为温度18℃,处理时间2h,藻重0.5g,长形水绵去除苯酚试验中中各因素最优水平组合为温度8℃,处理时间1h,藻重0.5g。     

Phylogeny and Molecular Evolution of the Green Algae

The green lineage (Viridiplantae) comprises the green algae and their descendants the land plants, and is one of the major groups of oxygenic photosynthetic eukaryotes. Current hypotheses posit the early divergence of two discrete clades from an ancestral green flagellate. One clade, the Chlorophyta, comprises the early diverging prasinophytes, which gave rise to the core chlorophytes. The other clade, the Streptophyta, includes the charophyte green algae from which the land plants evolved. Multi-marker and genome scale phylogenetic studies have greatly improved our understanding of broad-scale relationships of the green lineage, yet many questions persist, including the branching orders of the prasinophyte lineages, the relationships among core chlorophyte clades (Chlorodendrophyceae, Ulvophyceae, Trebouxiophyceae and Chlorophyceae), and the relationships among the streptophytes. Current phylogenetic hypotheses provide an evolutionary framework for molecular evolutionary studies and comparative genomics. This review summarizes our current understanding of organelle genome evolution in the green algae, genomic insights into the ecology of oceanic picoplanktonic prasinophytes, molecular mechanisms underlying the evolution of complexity in volvocine green algae, and the evolution of genetic codes and the translational apparatus in green seaweeds. Finally, we discuss molecular evolution in the streptophyte lineage, emphasizing the genetic facilitation of land plant origins.     

CO2 浓度变化对两种淡水绿藻的显微结构和超微结构的影响

为了探讨淡水绿藻在适应CO2浓度变化过程中细胞形态和结构的变化,通过普通显微镜和电子显微镜观察了在不同CO2浓度培养下的莱因衣藻(Chlamydomonas reinhardtii Dang)和斜生栅藻(Scenedesmus obliquus Kütz)细胞.结果表明,CO2浓度变化对莱因衣藻细胞体积没有明显的影响,但斜生栅藻在低浓度CO2培养下细胞体积明显增大,并可见细胞内含有大量颗粒.两种绿藻细胞的超微结构显示,在低浓度CO2培养下,细胞内叶绿体数目明显减少,并可见明显的淀粉盘包围的蛋白核;细胞内还可见大量的淀粉粒.而在高浓度CO2培养下,这两种绿藻细胞内均未见明显的蛋白核和大量淀粉粒出现.     

Excretion of Ribitol and Sucrose by Green Algae into the Culture Medium

Among 8 strains of algae grown with C¹⁴O₂ as a sole source of carbon, two species of Trebouxia produced appreciable amounts of two photosynthetic products in the culture medium. One of them was identified as sucrose by cochromatography and by acid hydrolysis. The other compound was identified as ribitol by paper chromatography, paper electrophoresis, periodic acid oxidation, recrystallization with authentic ribitol and finally by the enzymatic method with ribitol dehydrogenase.     

CO_2浓度变化对两种淡水绿藻的显微结构和超微结构的影响(英)

为了探讨淡水绿藻在适应CO2 浓度变化过程中细胞形态和结构的变化 ,通过普通显微镜和电子显微镜观察了在不同CO2 浓度培养下的莱因衣藻 (ChlamydomonasreinhardtiiDang)和斜生栅藻 (ScenedesmusobliquusK櫣ｔｚ)细胞。结果表明 ,CO2 浓度变化对莱因衣藻细胞体积没有明显的影响 ,但斜生栅藻在低浓度CO2 培养下细胞体积明显增大 ,并可见细胞内含有大量颗粒。两种绿藻细胞的超微结构显示 ,在低浓度CO2 培养下 ,细胞内叶绿体数目明显减少 ,并可见明显的淀粉盘包围的蛋白核 ;细胞内还可见大量的淀粉粒。而在高浓度CO2 培养下 ,这两种绿藻细胞内均未见明显的蛋白核和大量淀粉粒出现。