Interleukin 1 and phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate induce collagenase and PGE2 production through a PKC-independent mechanism in chondrocytes.

In the present study we demonstrate that interleukin 1 (IL 1) and phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA) stimulate collagenase production by bovine chondrocytes in monolayer culture. Since it has been well established that PMA stimulates protein kinase C (PKC), we examined whether IL 1 and PMA also stimulate PKC in chondrocytes. In agreement with other studies, PMA induced the translocation of PKC, reflecting PKC activation by PMA. In contrast, IL 1 did not induce the translocation of PKC. Both IL 1 and PMA stimulated the release of [14C]arachidonic acid from chondrocyte phospholipids, suggesting that both agents stimulate phospholipase A2 (PLA2). Concomitantly, IL 1 and PMA also induced a pronounced increase in the production of PGE2. Pre-incubation of chondrocytes with staurosporine, a PKC inhibitor, did not affect the stimulation of collagenase production by IL 1 and only minimally that induced by PMA. Similarly, high concentrations of staurosporine did not inhibit prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) production induced by IL 1 or PMA. These data show that IL 1 and PMA stimulate the PLA2 pathway and collagenase production, however, these processes can occur in the absence of PKC activation.     

The induction of cell death in human osteoarthritis chondrocytes by nitric oxide is related to the production of prostaglandin E2 via the induction of cyclooxygenase-2

There is increasing evidence suggesting that chondrocyte death may contribute to the progression of osteoarthritis (OA). This study focused on the characterization of signaling cascade during NO-induced cell death in human OA chondrocytes. The NO generator, sodium nitroprusside (SNP), promoted chondrocyte death in association with DNA fragmentation, caspase-3 activation, and down-regulation of Bcl-2. Both caspase-3 inhibitor Z-Asp(OCH3)-Glu(OCH3)-Val-Asp(OCH3)-CH2F and caspase-9 inhibitor Z-Leu-Glu(OCH3)-His-Asp(OCH3)-CH2F prevented the chondrocyte death. Blocking the mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway by the mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase 1/2 inhibitor PD98059 or p38 kinase inhibitor SB202190 also inhibited the SNP-mediated cell death, suggesting possible requirements of both extracellular signal-related protein kinase 1/2 and p38 kinase for the NO-induced cell death. Furthermore, the selective inhibition of cyclooxygenase (COX)-2 by NS-398 or the inhibition of COX-1/COX-2 by indomethacin blocked the SNP-induced cell death. The chondrocyte death induced by SNP was associated with an overexpression of COX-2 protein (as determined by Western blotting) and an increase in PGE2 release. PD98059 and SB202190, but neither Z-DEVD FMK nor Z-LEHD FMK completely inhibited the SNP-mediated PGE2 production. Analysis of interactions between PGE2 and the cell death showed that PGE2 enhanced the SNP-mediated cell death, whereas PGE2 alone did not induce the chondrocyte death. These data indicate that NO-induced chondrocyte death signaling includes PGE2 production via COX-2 induction and suggest that both extracellular signal-related protein kinase 1/2 and p38 kinase pathways are upstream signaling of the PGE2 production. The results also demonstrate that exogenous PGE2 may sensitize human OA chondrocytes to the cell death induced by NO.     

Stimulation of human chondrocyte prostaglandin E2 production by recombinant human interleukin-1 and tumour necrosis factor

In this study we have examined the effects of recombinant cytokine preparations on the production of prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) by human articular chondrocytes in both chondrocyte monolayer and cartilage organ cultures. The cytokines chosen for this study included only those reported to be present in rheumatoid synovial fluids and which therefore could conceivably play a role in chondrocyte activation in inflammatory arthritis. Of the cytokines tested, interleukin-1 (IL-1; alpha and beta forms) consistently induced the highest levels of PGE2 production followed, to a lesser extent, by tumour necrosis factor (TNF; alpha and beta forms). The IL-1s were effective at concentrations 2-3 orders of magnitude less than the TNFs, with each cytokine demonstrating a dose-dependent increase in PGE2 synthesis for the two culture procedures. The increased PGE2 production by the chondrocytes exhibited a lag phase of 4-8 h following the addition of the IL-1 or TNF and was inhibited by actinomycin D and cycloheximide, indicating a requirement for de novo RNA and protein synthesis, respectively. Our results suggest that IL-1 may be the key cytokine involved in modulating chondrocyte PGE2 production in inflammatory arthritis; they further extend the list of human chondrocyte responses which are affected by both IL-1 and TNF.     

Analysis of isoform specific ERK signaling on the effects of interleukin-1β on COX-2 expression and PGE2 production in human chondrocytes

The MAPK/ERK pathway is involved in IL-1β-induced cyclooxygenase (COX-2) expression and prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) production; two factors that play important roles in OA pathogenesis. In the present study, we find that IL-1β induced COX-2 expression and PGE2 production in human chondrocytes via a process that required the activation of the MAPK/ERK pathway. To evaluate the respective roles and relationship of ERK1 and ERK2 on IL-1β induced COX-2 expression and PGE2 production, small interfering RNA was used to knockdown ERK1, ERK2 or both in human chondrocytes. COX-2 expression and PGE2 production were significantly suppressed to a similar degree by the silencing of ERK1 or ERK2 alone. Moreover, the combined knockdown displayed a synergistic effect. Simultaneously, Western blotting indicated that the knockdown of ERK1 or ERK2 down regulated phospho-ERK1 and ERK1 or phospho-ERK2 and ERK2 levels, respectively. No significant compensatory mechanism through the upregulation of the other phospho-ERK and ERK isoform was observed. The combined silencing suppressed both phospho-ERK1/2 and ERK1/2. In conclusion, each ERK isoform similarly influenced IL-1β-mediated COX-2 expression and PGE2 production in human chondrocytes, and ERK1 and ERK2 displayed synergistic effects. Although, inhibition of both ERK1 and ERK2 would be a more effective, each ERK isoform may sufficiently regulate these effects in human chondrocytes. ERK1 or ERK2 may be potential therapeutic target for the inflammatory process of OA.     

Green tea polyphenol epigallocatechin-3-gallate inhibits the IL-1 beta-induced activity and expression of cyclooxygenase-2 and nitric oxide synthase-2 in human chondrocytes

We have previously shown that green tea polyphenols inhibit the onset and severity of collagen II-induced arthritis in mice. In the present study, we report the pharmacological effects of green tea polyphenol epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG), on interleukin-1 beta (IL-1 beta)-induced expression and activity of cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) in human chondrocytes derived from osteoarthritis (OA) cartilage. Stimulation of human chondrocytes with IL-1 beta (5 ng/ml) for 24 h resulted in significantly enhanced production of nitric oxide (NO) and prostaglandin E(2) (PGE(2)) when compared to untreated controls (p <.001). Pretreament of human chondrocytes with EGCG showed a dose-dependent inhibition in the production of NO and PGE(2) by 48% and 24%, respectively, and correlated with the inhibition of iNOS and COX-2 activities (p <.005). In addition, IL-1 beta-induced expression of iNOS and COX-2 was also markedly inhibited in human chondrocytes pretreated with EGCG (p <.001). Parallel to these findings, EGCG also inhibited the IL-1 beta-induced LDH release in chondrocytes cultures. Overall, the study suggests that EGCG affords protection against IL-1 beta-induced production of catabolic mediators NO and PGE(2) in human chondrocytes by regulating the expression and catalytic activity of their respective enzymes. Furthermore, our results also indicate that ECGC may be of potential therapeutic value for inhibiting cartilage resorption in arthritic joints.     

Differentiation status-dependent regulation of cyclooxygenase-2 expression and prostaglandin E2 production by epidermal growth factor via mitogen-activated protein kinase in articular chondrocytes

Although large amounts of epidermal growth factor (EGF) are found in the synovial fluids of arthritic cartilage, the role of EGF in arthritis is not clearly understood. This study investigated the effect of EGF on differentiation and on inflammatory responses such as cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) expression and prostaglandin E(2) (PGE(2)) production in articular chondrocytes. EGF caused a loss of differentiated chondrocyte phenotype as demonstrated by inhibition of type II collagen expression and proteoglycan synthesis. EGF also induced COX-2 expression and PGE(2) production. EGF-induced dedifferentiation was caused by EGF receptor-mediated activation of extracellular signal-regulated protein kinases 1 and 2 (ERK1/2) but not p38 kinase, whereas the activation of both ERK1/2 and p38 kinase was necessary for COX-2 expression and PGE(2) production. Neither the inhibition of COX-2 expression and PGE(2) production nor the addition of exogenous PGE(2) affected EGF-induced dedifferentiation. However, COX-2 expression and PGE(2) production were significantly enhanced in chondrocytes that were dedifferentiated by serial subculture, and EGF also potentiated COX-2 expression and PGE(2) production, although these cells were less sensitive to EGF. Dedifferentiation-induced COX-2 expression and PGE(2) production were mediated by ERK1/2 and p38 kinase signaling. Our results indicate that EGF in articular chondrocytes stimulates COX-2 expression and PGE(2) production via ERK and p38 kinase signaling in association with differentiation status.     

Sauchinone prevents IL‐1β‐induced inflammatory response in human chondrocytes

Sauchinone is one of the active lignan isolated from Saururus chinensis, which has been considered to possess various pharmacological activities, such as antitumor, hepatoprotective, antioxidant, and anti‐inflammatory effects. However, the functional roles of sauchinone in interleukin‐1 beta (IL‐1β)‐stimulated human osteoarthritis (OA) chondrocytes are still unknown. Thus, in this study, we investigated the anti‐inflammatory effects of sauchinone in IL‐1β‐stimulated chondrocytes. Our results demonstrated that sauchinone significantly attenuated NO and PGE2 production, as well as inhibited iNOS and COX‐2 expression in IL‐1β‐stimulated OA chondrocytes. In addition, sauchinone efficiently inhibited IL‐1β‐induced MMP‐3 and MMP‐13 release in human OA chondrocytes. Furthermore, sauchinone significantly attenuated the activation of NF‐κB in human OA chondrocytes. In conclusion, we showed for the first time that sauchinone inhibited inflammatory response in IL‐1β‐stimulated human chondrocytes probably through inhibiting the activation of NF‐κB signaling pathway. These data suggest that sauchinone may be a potential agent in the treatment of OA.     

Evidence for the presence of P2-purinoceptors at the surface of human articular chondrocytes in monolayer culture

Extracellular purines can act at purinoceptors to influence metabolic processes. Nucleotide-metabolizing ectoenzymes may modulate such purinergic effects, and their occurrence in a tissue may suggest the presence of purinoceptors. Thus, following the identification of ecto-nucleoside triphosphate pyrophosphatase in cultured human articular chondrocytes, we have studied whether these cells express P2-type purinoceptors. Release of prostaglandin E (PGE) was monitored, since articular chondrocytes synthesize and secrete PGE, and activation of P2-purinoceptors frequently results in enhanced prostaglandin production. Extracellular ATP and ADP stimulated PGE production, whereas AMP and adenosine had only limited effects. ATP concentrations as low as 5 microM were effective, and maximal responses were achieved at 50-100 microM ATP. GTP, UTP and ITP also elicited responses, but tended to be less effective than ATP at equivalent concentrations. Of the analogues of ATP that were tested, only adenosine 5'-(beta,gamma-methylene)triphosphate stimulated PGE production. The response to extracellular ATP was virtually abolished by indomethacin. Treatment of the cells with the P1-purinoceptor antagonist, 8-phenyltheophylline, or with pertussis toxin reduced both basal and ATP-stimulated PGE production, but did not substantially decrease the ratio of ATP-stimulated to basal PGE production. These results indicate the presence of P2-purinoceptors in cultured human articular chondrocytes, and suggest that extracellular ATP may have physiological and pathological effects in human articular cartilage.     

Interleukin 4 inhibition of prostaglandin E2 synthesis blocks interstitial collagenase and 92-kDa type IV collagenase/gelatinase production by human monocytes.

Activation of human monocytes results in the production of interstitial collagenase through a prostaglandin E2 (PGE2)-cAMP-dependent pathway. Inasmuch as interleukin 4 (IL-4) has been shown to inhibit PGE2 synthesis by monocytes, we examined the effect of IL-4 on the production of human monocyte interstitial collagenase. Additionally, we also assessed the effect of IL-4 on the production of 92-kDa type IV collagenase/gelatinase and tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase-1 (TIMP-1) by monocytes. The inhibition of PGE2 synthesis by IL-4 resulted in decreased interstitial collagenase protein and activity that could be restored by exogenous PGE2 or dibutyryl cyclic AMP (Bt2cAMP). IL-4 also suppressed ConA-stimulated 92-kDa type IV collagenase/gelatinase protein and zymogram enzyme activity that could be reversed by exogenous PGE2 or Bt2cAMP. Moreover, indomethacin suppressed the ConA-induced production of 92-kDa type IV collagenase/gelatinase. These data demonstrate that, like monocyte interstitial collagenase, the conA-inducible monocyte 92-kDa type IV collagenase/gelatinase is regulated through a PGE2-mediated cAMP-dependent pathway. In contrast to ConA stimulation, unstimulated monocytes released low levels of 92-kDa type IV collagenase/gelatinase that were not affected by IL-4, PGE2, or Bt2cAMP, indicating that basal production of this enzyme is PGE2-cAMP independent. IL-4 inhibition of both collagenases was not a result of increased TIMP expression since Western analysis of 28.5-kDa TIMP-1 revealed that IL-4 did not alter the increased TIMP-1 protein in response to ConA. These data indicate that IL-4 may function in natural host regulation of connective tissue damage by monocytes.     

A novel mechanism of action of chemically modified tetracyclines: inhibition of COX-2-mediated prostaglandin E2 production.

Tetracyclines (doxycycline and minocycline) inhibit inducible NO synthase expression and augment cyclooxygenase (COX)-2 expression and PGE2 production. In contrast, chemically modified tetracyclines (CMTs), such as CMT-3 and -8 (but not CMT-1, -2, and -5), that lack antimicrobial activity, inhibit both NO and PGE2 production in LPS-stimulated murine macrophages, bovine chondrocytes, and human osteoarthritis-affected cartilage, which spontaneously produces NO and PGE2 in ex vivo conditions. Furthermore, CMT-3 augments COX-2 protein expression but inhibits net PGE2 accumulation. This coincides with the ability of CMT-3 and -8 to inhibit COX-2 enzyme activity in vitro. The action of CMTs is distinct from that observed with tetracyclines because 1) CMT-3-mediated inhibition of PGE2 production coincides with modification of COX-2 protein, which is distinct from the nonglycosylated COX-2 protein generated in the presence of tunicamycin, as observed by Western blot analysis and 2) CMT-3 and -8 have no significant effect on COX-2 mRNA accumulation. In contrast, CMT-3 and -8 do not inhibit COX-1 expression in A549 human epithelial cells at the level of protein and mRNA accumulation or modification of COX-1 protein. CMT-3 and -8 inhibit the sp. act. of COX-2 (but not COX-1) in cell-free extracts. These results demonstrate differential action of CMT-3 (Metastat) on COX-1 and -2 expression, which is distinct from other tetracyclines.     

Inhibition of matrix metalloproteinase-3 and -13 synthesis induced by IL-1beta in chondrocytes from mice lacking microsomal prostaglandin E synthase-1

Joint destruction in arthritis is in part due to the induction of matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) expression and their inhibitors, especially MMP-13 and -3, which directly degrade the cartilage matrix. Although IL-1β is considered as the main catabolic factor involved in MMP-13 and -3 expression, the role of PGE(2) remains controversial. The goal of this study was to determine the role of PGE(2) on MMP synthesis in articular chondrocytes using mice lacking microsomal PGE synthase-1 (mPGES-1), which catalyses the rate-limiting step of PGE(2) synthesis. MMP-3 and MMP-13 mRNA and protein expressions were assessed by real-time RT-PCR, immunoblotting, and ELISA in primary cultures of articular chondrocytes from mice with genetic deletion of mPGES-1. IL-1β-induced PGE(2) synthesis was dramatically reduced in mPGES-1(-/-) and mPGES-1(+/-) compared with mPGES-1(+/+) chondrocytes. A total of 10 ng/ml IL-1β increased MMP-3 and MMP-13 mRNA, protein expression, and release in mPGES-1(+/+) chondrocytes in a time-dependent manner. IL-1β-induced MMP-3 and MMP-13 mRNA expression, protein expression, and release decreased in mPGES-1(-/-) and mPGES-1(+/-) chondrocytes compared with mPGES-1(+/+) chondrocytes from 8 up to 24 h. Otherwise, MMP inhibition was partially reversed by addition of 10 ng/ml PGE(2) in mPGES-1(-/-) chondrocytes. Finally, in mPGES-1(-/-) chondrocytes treated by forskolin, MMP-3 protein expression was significantly decreased compared with wild-type, suggesting that PGE(2) regulates MMP-3 expression via a signaling pathway dependent on cAMP. These results demonstrate that PGE(2) plays a key role in the induction of MMP-3 and MMP-13 in an inflammatory context. Therefore, mPGES-1 could be considered as a critical target to counteract cartilage degradation in arthritis.     

Development of selective tolerance to interleukin-1beta by human chondrocytes in vitro

Interleukin-1 induces release of NO and PGE(2) and production of matrix degrading enzymes in chondrocytes. In osteoarthritis (OA), IL-1 continually, or episodically, acts on chondrocytes in a paracrine and autocrine manner. Human chondrocytes in chondron pellet culture were treated chronically (up to 14 days) with IL-1beta. Chondrons from OA articular cartilage were cultured for 3 weeks before treatment with IL-1beta (0.05-10 ng/ml) for an additional 2 weeks. Spontaneous release of NO and IL-1beta declined over the pretreatment period. In response to IL-1beta (0.1 ng/ml), NO and PGE(2) release was maximal on Day 2 or 3 and then declined to near basal level by Day 14. Synthesis was recovered by addition of 1 ng/ml IL-1beta on Day 11. Expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), detected by immunofluorescence, was elevated on Day 2 and declined through Day 14, which coordinated with the pattern of NO release. On the other hand, IL-1beta-induced MMP-13 synthesis was elevated on Day 3, declined on Day 5, and then increased again through Day 14. IL-1beta increased glucose consumption and lactate production throughout the treatment. IL-1beta stimulated proteoglycan degradation in the early days and inhibited proteoglycan synthesis through Day 14. Chondron pellet cultures from non-OA cartilage released the same amount of NO but produced less PGE(2) and MMP-13 in response to IL-1beta than OA cultures. Like the OA, IL-1beta-induced NO and PGE(2) release decreased over time. In conclusion, with prolonged exposure to IL-1beta, human chondrocytes develop selective tolerance involving NO and PGE(2) release but not MMP-13 production, metabolic activity, or matrix metabolism.     

15-Deoxy-delta(12,14)-prostaglandin J(2) inhibits IL-1beta-induced IKK enzymatic activity and IkappaBalpha degradation in rat chondrocytes through a PPARgamma-independent pathway

Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARgamma) ligands have been shown to inhibit the effects of proinflammatory cytokines such as interleukin-1beta (IL-1beta). This cytokine plays a key role in articular pathophysiologies by inducing the production of inflammatory mediators such as nitric oxide (NO) and prostaglandin E(2) (PGE(2)). We previously demonstrated that 15d-PGJ(2) was more potent than troglitazone to counteract IL-1beta effects on chondrocytes. Here, we studied the action of 15d-PGJ(2) on intracellular targets in nuclear factor-kappaB (NF-kappaB) signalling pathway in IL-1beta treated rat chondrocytes. We found that 15d-PGJ(2) decreased inhibitor kappaBalpha (IkappaBalpha) degradation but not its phosphorylation by specifically inhibiting IkappaB kinase beta (IKKbeta), but not IKKalpha, enzymatic activity. We further evaluated the involvement of PPARgamma in the anti-inflammatory action of its ligands. In chondrocytes overexpressing functional PPARgamma protein, 15d-PGJ(2) pre-treatment inhibited inducible NO synthase and COX-2 mRNA expression, nitrite and PGE(2) production, p65 translocation and NF-kappaB activation. Troglitazone or rosiglitazone pre-treatment had no effect. 15d-PGJ(2) exhibited the same effect in chondrocytes overexpressing mutated PPARgamma protein. These results suggest that 15d-PGJ(2) exerts its anti-inflammatory effect in rat chondrocytes by a PPARgamma-independent mechanism, which can be conferred to a partial inhibition of IkappaBalpha degradation.     

Prostaglandin E2 enhances interleukin-8 production via EP4 receptor in human pulmonary microvascular endothelial cells

Prostaglandin E(2) (PGE(2)) is a bioactive prostanoid implicated in the inflammatory processes of acute lung injury/acute respiratory distress syndrome. This study investigated whether PGE(2) can induce production of interleukin (IL)-8, the major chemokine for neutrophil activation, from human pulmonary microvascular endothelial cells (HPMVECs). PGE(2) significantly enhanced IL-8 protein production with increases in IL-8 mRNA expression and intracellular cAMP levels. HPMVECs expressed only EP4 receptor mRNA. The PGE(2) effects were mimicked by a selective EP4 receptor agonist, ONO-AE1-329, and inhibited by a selective EP4 receptor antagonist, ONO-AE3-208, or a protein kinase A inhibitor, Rp-adenosine 3',5'-cyclic monophosphorothioate triethylamine salt. The specific agonist for EP1, EP2, or EP3 receptor did not induce IL-8 production. PGE(2)-induced IL-8 production was accompanied by p38 phosphorylation and was significantly inhibited by a p38 inhibitor, SB-203580, but not by an ERK1/2 inhibitor, U-0126, or a JNK inhibitor, SP-600125. Additionally, PGE(2) increased cyclooxygenase-2 expression with no change in constitutive cyclooxygenase-1 expression, suggesting possible involvement of an autocrine or paracrine manner. In conclusion, PGE(2) enhances IL-8 production via EP4 receptor coupled to G(s) protein in HPMVECs. Activation of the cAMP/protein kinase A pathway, followed by p38 activation, is essential for these mechanisms. Because neutrophils play a critical role in the inflammation of acute lung injury/acute respiratory distress syndrome, IL-8 released from the pulmonary microvasculature in response to PGE(2) may contribute to pathophysiology of this disease.     

The synovial activation of chondrocytes: evidence for complex cytokine interactions involving a possible novel factor.

Preparations of lapine synovial 'chondrocyte activating factors' (CAF) were analyzed for the presence of individual cytokines which modulate the production of neutral metalloproteinases (NMPs) and prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) by articular chondrocytes. A combination of different biochemical analyses suggested that synovial fibroblasts secrete IL-1 alpha, which activated chondrocytes directly, bFGF, which potentiated the activity of IL-1, and TGF-beta 1, which produced a bivalent response. TGF-beta 1 suppressed NMP synthesis by chondrocytes, but enhanced PGE2 synthesis. The IL-1 receptor antagonist protein (IRAP) eliminated chondrocyte activation by IL-1, but only partially inhibited activation by CAF. Thus, CAF may contain a cytokine in addition to IL-1 which activates chondrocytes. This putative additional factor was more thermosensitive than IL-1, and had an apparent molecular weight of approx. 20,000 when estimated by size exclusion chromatography. Of a variety of purified cytokines tested for their ability to induce NMPs in chondrocytes, only IL-1 was active. This favours the possibility that the activity which resists suppression by IRAP reflects the presence of a novel cytokine.     

Recombinant human interleukin 1 alpha and beta stimulate mouse osteoblast-like cells (MC3T3-E1) to produce macrophage-colony stimulating activity and prostaglandin E2

The effects of interleukin 1 (IL-1) on MC3T3-E1 cells (clonal osteoblast-like cells established from mouse calvaria) were studied to elucidate the mechanism of IL-1-induced bone resorption. Recombinant human interleukin 1 alpha (rhIL-1 alpha) and beta (rhIL-1 beta) stimulated PGE2 production in MC3T3-E1 cells in a dose dependent manner. rhIL-1 alpha and 1 beta also stimulated MC3T3-E1 cells to produce macrophage-colony stimulating activity (M-CSA) in a dose-dependent manner. Indomethacin completely abolished PGE2 production but did not affect CSA. These results suggest that bone resorption induced by IL-1s is at least in part mediated by PGE2 produced by osteoblasts, and that M-CSA produced by osteoblasts may synergistically potentiate bone resorption by recruiting osteoclast precursors.     

Tetracycline up-regulates COX-2 expression and prostaglandin E2 production independent of its effect on nitric oxide

Tetracyclines (doxycycline and minocycline) augmented (one- to twofold) the PGE2 production in human osteoarthritis-affected cartilage (in the presence or absence of cytokines and endotoxin) in ex vivo conditions. Similarly, bovine chondrocytes stimulated with LPS showed (one- to fivefold) an increase in PGE2 accumulation in the presence of doxycycline. This effect was observed at drug concentrations that did not affect nitric oxide (NO) production. In murine macrophages (RAW 264.7) stimulated with LPS, tetracyclines inhibited NO release and increased PGE2 production. Tetracycline(s) and L-N-monomethylarginine (L-NMMA) (NO synthase inhibitor) showed an additive effect on inhibition of NO and PGE2 accumulation, thereby uncoupling the effects of tetracyclines on NO and PGE2 production. The enhancement of PGE2 production in RAW 264.7 cells by tetracyclines was accompanied by the accumulation of both cyclooxygenase (COX)-2 mRNA and cytosolic COX-2 protein. In contrast to tetracyclines, L-NMMA at low concentrations (< or = 100 microM) inhibited the spontaneous release of No in osteoarthritis-affected explants and LPS-stimulated macrophages but had no significant effect on the PGE2 production. At higher concentrations, L-NMMA (500 microM) inhibited NO release but augmented PGE2 production. This study indicates a novel mechanism of action of tetracyclines to augment the expression of COX-2 and PGE2 production, an effect that is independent of endogenous concentration of NO.