Evaluating the quality of communities made compost manure in South Africa: a case study of content and sources of metals in compost manure from Thulamela Municipality, Limpopo province

The main aim of this research was to assess the quality of the compost manure of a community project which is part of Government's initiative for job creation. This was done by determining the sources, presence and concentrations of metals in the composting materials and compost manure. Generally, there are many communities involved in making compost manure with no assessment of the quality of the compost. This is because no quality assurance guidelines are in place. The main source of heavy metals in the composting materials was found to be sawdust while cabbage was the main source of the essential nutrient elements such as magnesium calcium and potassium. The level of heavy metals in all the compost materials were found in the following order: Fe>Mn>Cr>Ni>Zn>Cu>Co>Cd. The level of essential elements was in the following order: Ca>Mg>K>S>Na>Li>Si>P. The level of heavy metals in the compost materials reflected the level in the final compost manure. The concentration of metals in the compost materials and compost manure was below the international standards of compost manure. Therefore, compost manure can be said to be of good quality. However, sawdust was found to be not a good compost material as it was the source of main heavy metals.     

Effects of Manure Compost Application on Soil Microbial Community Diversity and Soil Microenvironments in a Temperate Cropland in China

The long-term application of excessive chemical fertilizers has resulted in the degeneration of soil quality parameters such as soil microbial biomass, communities, and nutrient content, which in turn affects crop health, productivity, and soil sustainable productivity. The objective of this study was to develop a rapid and efficient solution for rehabilitating degraded cropland soils by precisely quantifying soil quality parameters through the application of manure compost and bacteria fertilizers or its combination during maize growth. We investigated dynamic impacts on soil microbial count, biomass, basal respiration, community structure diversity, and enzyme activity using six different treatments [no fertilizer (CK), N fertilizer (N), N fertilizer + bacterial fertilizer (NB), manure compost (M), manure compost + bacterial fertilizer (MB), and bacterial fertilizer (B)] in the plowed layer (0–20 cm) of potted soil during various maize growth stages in a temperate cropland of eastern China. Denaturing gradient electrophoresis (DGGE) fingerprinting analysis showed that the structure and composition of bacterial and fungi communities in the six fertilizer treatments varied at different levels. The Shannon index of bacterial and fungi communities displayed the highest value in the MB treatments and the lowest in the N treatment at the maize mature stage. Changes in soil microorganism community structure and diversity after different fertilizer treatments resulted in different microbial properties. Adding manure compost significantly increased the amount of cultivable microorganisms and microbial biomass, thus enhancing soil respiration and enzyme activities (p<0.01), whereas N treatment showed the opposite results (p<0.01). However, B and NB treatments minimally increased the amount of cultivable microorganisms and microbial biomass, with no obvious influence on community structure and soil enzymes. Our findings indicate that the application of manure compost plus bacterial fertilizers can immediately improve the microbial community structure and diversity of degraded cropland soils.     

不同有机废弃物改良新复垦耕地的综合效果评价

由废弃地整理复垦形成的耕地存在土壤有机质和有效养分低、土壤板结、微生物活性弱和土壤耕作性状不良等问题,快速、有效地提高土壤肥力质量是全面提升该类耕地质量和生产性能的重要组成部分.本文通过田间小区试验研究了城郊有机废弃物对新复垦耕地土壤培肥的综合效果,并比较了不同类型城郊有机废弃物在培育耕地质量方面的差异.试验设置了施用等量猪粪、鸡粪、水稻秸秆、蔬菜收获残留物、城市污泥、沼渣、猪粪/水稻秸秆堆肥、生活垃圾堆肥和对照（不施有机肥）9个处理（年用量30 t·hm^-2）,连续进行3年的定点试验.结果表明： 施用任何有机物对改善土壤肥力均有明显的作用.其中,提升土壤碳库管理指数以施用猪粪、鸡粪、猪粪/水稻秸秆堆肥、水稻秸秆和沼渣的效果最为显著;增加土壤水稳定性团聚体和降低土壤容重以施用猪粪/水稻秸秆堆肥和沼渣的效果最佳;施用污泥、猪粪/水稻秸秆堆肥和生活垃圾堆肥可增强土壤保蓄能力;施用猪粪、鸡粪和猪粪/水稻秸秆堆肥对增加土壤有效态养分的效果最为明显;各类有机物均显著提高了土壤微生物数量和酶活性.长期施用污泥、生活垃圾堆肥及畜禽粪存在着土壤重金属污染的风险,但短期施用对土壤环境质量影响不明显.总体上,对土壤肥力的改善效果由大至小依次为：猪粪/水稻秸秆堆肥>鸡粪>猪粪>沼渣>生活垃圾堆肥>水稻秸秆>城市污泥>蔬菜收获残留物;对土壤的相对污染程度由大至小为：城市污泥>生活垃圾堆肥>猪粪>鸡粪>沼渣>猪粪/水稻秸秆堆肥>蔬菜收获残留物>水稻秸秆.     

Efficacy of water hyacinth compost in nursery ponds for larval rearing of Indian major carp,Labeo rohita

The use of water hyacinth compost as manure in nursery ponds for larval rearing of Indian major carp, Labeo rohita was studied. Better performance with regard to growth and survivability of the larvae was recorded in the ponds treated with water hyacinth compost (Group A) than in either the ponds treated with inorganic fertilizers (Group B) or the ponds where no treatment was applied (Group C). The average percentages of survival in Groups A, B and C were 14.3, 11.2 and 5.0, respectively. Thus about 186% increase in the survivability was recorded in the ponds treated with water hyacinth compost (P < 0.01), whereas the increase was about 124% in the ponds treated with only inorganic fertilizers, when compared with the ponds which were without any treatment.     

Relative effectiveness of various types and methods of zinc application on rice and maize crops grown in calcareous soil

Summary Application of zinc sulphate mixed with compost/poultry manure proved to be equivalent to the effect of dipping the seedling roots in 4% ZnO suspension with respect to rice yields but Zn-amended organic manures were superior to other treatments with regards to total Zn uptake. A marked residual effect of soil applied treatments was recorded on the succeeding maize crop. Application of poultry manure alone was about one and a half times more effective than compost alone in increasing the rice and maize grain yields. Poultry manure surpassed compost in increasing zinc uptake by the crops and at the same time it built up more available Zn in soil than compost for the following crop. The magnitude of yields and Zn uptake response were magnified when zinc sulphate was applied along with organic manures. Application of 25 kg zinc sulphate/ha alone had the same effect as 50 quintals poultry manure alone or 12.5 kg zinc sulphate applied with 50 quintals compost/ha with respect to crop yields. A significant positive correlation was, recorded in both the crops between Zn concentration in grain or straw and their respective yields.     

Effect of fungal consortium and animal manure amendments on phosphorus fractions of paddy-straw compost

The study was conducted to reveal the type of phosphorus (P) fractions present in mature compost prepared by co-composting paddy straw (P.S) with cattle manure (CM), farm yard manure (FYM) and poultry manure (PM), each added separately as nitrogen (N) and P source. A consortium of phytate mineralizing fungi developed by including Aspergillus niger ITCC 6719, Aspergillus flavus ITCC 6720 and Trichoderma harzianum ITCC 6721 was applied for recovery of P from plant and animal residues. Chemical evaluation of compost after 4 months of aerobic decomposition revealed that inoculation improved the sodium bicarbonate-extractable P content of CM and FYM supplemented P.S compost by 32.3% and 23.5% respectively compared with their respective un-inoculated control. However, the peak values for water soluble-P fractions were recorded in CM–straw compost followed by PM–straw compost. Fungal inoculation also improved the agronomic quality of PM–straw compost as the latter had the highest total P content and lowest C:N and E4/E6 ratio of 18:1 and 5.36:1 respectively. The recovery of organic P from agricultural residue has the potential to reduce the application of synthetic P fertilizer. P-enriched organic manure can offer potential environment and economic benefits to farmers under sustainable agriculture.     

Compost biofiltration of ammonia gas from bin composting

The effects of the manure compost/coconut peels on the ammonia removal efficiency were examined from dairy manure composting mixed with crop residues. The high rapid composting and manure compost biofiltration experiments consisted of three biofilter vessels with one composter. Dairy manure amended with rice hulls and sawdust was composted in 605 L pilot-scale composter using continuous aeration for 19 days. Three pilot-scale manure compost biofilter amended with media bed 500 mm in depth and 300 mm in diameter were built to clean ammonia emission from composter, respectively. The manure compost biofilter media in the three experimental vessels was using a 50:50 by weight mixture of manure compost and coconut peels (MC/CP). The ammonia concentrations at the inlet and outlet biofilter media were measured by boric acid traps as described by Hong et al. [Hong, J.H., Keener, H.M., Elwell, D.L., 1998. Preliminary study of the effect of continuous and intermittent aeration on composting hog manure amended with sawdust. Compost Science and Utilization 6 (3), 74-88]. Results indicated that the mixture of MC/CP performed well as a biofilter media and the ammonia removal efficiency was 100% for the filter depth of 500 mm.     

Co-Composting of Soil Heavily Contaminated with Creosote with Cattle Manure and Vegetable Waste for the Bioremediation of Creosote–Contaminated Soil

Mispah form (FAO: Lithosol) soil contaminated with >380 000 mg kg^?1 creosote was co-composted with cattle manure and mixed vegetable waste for 19 months. The soil was mixed with wood chips to improve aeration and then mixed with cattle manure or mixed vegetable waste in a ratio of 4:1. Moisture, temperature, pH, ash content, C:N ratios, and the concentrations of creosote in the compost systems were monitored monthly. The concentrations of selected hydrocarbons in the compost systems were determined at the end of composting. Temperature rose to about 45°C in the cattle manure compost within two months of incubation while temperature in the control and vegetable waste remained below 30°C until the fourth month. Creosote concentration was reduced by 17% in the control and by more than 99% in the cattle manure and vegetable waste compost after composting. The rate of reduction in concentration in the mixed vegetable waste compost was initially lower than in the cattle manure compost. The reduction rate became similar in later months with only small differences towards the end of the composting. The concentrations of selected creosote components were reduced by between 96% and 100% after composting. There was no significant difference in reduction in concentration in both compost systems at p 0.05. Microbial activity correlated with reduction in creosote concentration.     

Co-composting solid swine manure with pine sawdust as organic substrate

The main objectives of this work were to investigate the evolution of the principal physicochemical properties, i.e., bulk temperature, pH, electrical conductivity (EC), moisture content, total organic matter, total nitrogen and total phosphorus, in co-composting pine sawdust with increasing percentages of fresh solid swine manure, and thus to evaluate the most desirable manure proportion for producing organic substrates in consideration of the quality of the resulted compost. The composting was in four identical 100.5l lab vessels, using 5% each tea leaves and herb residues as conditioners. The swine manure was added in the trials at 20%, 30%, 40%, respectively, and was substituted in the control with 30% lake sludge corrected by 0.5% urea. The initial humidity of each treatment was 60+/-2%. While being aerated actively at approximately 0.3m(3)/min at intervals of 10 min/h, the mixture was composted for 29 days. The results indicated that N and P decomposition primarily occurred in the mesophilic phase, while organic carbon decomposed in the thermophilic phase and 30% swine manure with initial C/N ratio of about 40 was more desirable for composting organic substrates.     

Effect of Compost and Manure Soil Amendments on Nematodes and on Yields of Potato and Barley: A 7-Year Study

A 7-year study located in Prince Edward Island, Canada, examined the influence of compost and manure on crop yield and nematode populations. The compost used in this study consisted of cull waste potatoes, sawdust, and beef manure in a 3:3:1 ratio, respectively. No plant-parasitic nematodes were detected in samples collected from windrow compost piles at 5- and 30-cm depths prior to application on field plots. Low population densities of bacterial-feeding nematodes were recovered from compost windrows at the 5-cm depth. Field plots of potato (Solanum tuberosum cv. Kennebec) received compost applied at 16 metric tonnes per hectare, or beef manure applied at 12 metric tonnes per hectare. An adjacent trial with barley (Hordeum vulgare cv. Mic Mac) received only the compost treatment. In both trials the experimental design was a complete randomized block with four replicates. Data averaged over seven growing seasons indicated that population levels of root-lesion nematodes (primarily Pratylenchus penetrans) were higher in root-zone soil in potato plots treated with either compost or manure compared to the untreated control plots. The soil amendments did not affect root-knot nematode (Meloidogyne hapla) population densities in the potato plots, but clover-cyst nematodes (Heterodera trifolii) were more numerous in the root-zone soils of barley treated with compost compared to the untreated plots. Numbers of bacterial-feeding nematodes (primarily Diplogaster lheritieri) were greater in soil in potato plots treated with manure and in soil around barley roots than in untreated plots. Total yields of potato tubers averaged over seven growing seasons increased by 27% in the plots treated with either compost or manure. Grain yields of barley also were increased by 12% when compost was applied. These results indicated that organic amendments increased crop yields, but the impacts on different nematode species varied and usually increased soil population levels.     

Growth of Vetiveria zizanioides and Phragmities australis on Pb/Zn and Cu mine tailings amended with manure compost and sewage sludge: a greenhouse study

The Lechang lead/zinc (Pb/Zn) mine and Dabao Shan copper (Cu) mine are located at the north of Guangdong Province in southern China. The residual tailings were permanently stored in tailings ponds which required revegetation to reduce their impact on the environment. A greenhouse study was conducted to evaluate the feasibility of using Vetiveria zizanioides (vetiver) and Phragmities australis (common reed) for the reclamation of Pb/Zn and Cu mine tailings and to evaluate the effects of organic amendments using manure compost (11.00, 22.03, 44.05 and 88.10 t/ha) and sewages sludge (11.00, 22.03, 44.05 and 88.10 t/ha) on the revegetation of these tailings. The results revealed that the applications of manure compost or sewage sludge not only increased N, P and K concentrations, but also decreased DTPA-extractable Pb and Zn contents in Pb/Zn tailings and DTPA-extractable Cu contents in Cu tailings. For Pb/Zn mine tailings, application of sewage sludge increased the yields of both species (highest yield at 44.05 t/ha), but not manure compost. For Cu mine tailings, application of manure compost (highest yield for both species at 44.05 and 22.03 t/ha for vetiver and common reed accordingly) or sewage sludge (highest yield at 22.03 and 44.05 t/ha for vetiver and common reed accordingly) increased the yield of both species. In general, vetiver achieved a higher yield when compared with common reed, under the same treatment. Plant tissue analysis showed that application of manure compost and sewage sludge could significantly reduce Pb uptake and accumulation, but not Cu in both vetiver and common reed.     

Fate of Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium on carrots and radishes grown in fields treated with contaminated manure composts or irrigation water

Three different types of compost, PM-5 (poultry manure compost), 338 (dairy cattle manure compost), and NVIRO-4 (alkaline-pH-stabilized dairy cattle manure compost), and irrigation water were inoculated with an avirulent strain of Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium at 10(7) CFU g(-1) and 10(5) CFU ml(-1), respectively, to determine the persistence of salmonellae in soils containing these composts, in irrigation water, and also on carrots and radishes grown in these contaminated soils. A split-plot block design plan was used for each crop, with five treatments (one without compost, three with each of the three composts, and one without compost but with contaminated water applied) and five replicates for a total of 25 plots for each crop, with each plot measuring 1.8 x 4.6 m. Salmonellae persisted for an extended period of time, with the bacteria surviving in soil samples for 203 to 231 days, and were detected after seeds were sown for 84 and 203 days on radishes and carrots, respectively. Salmonella survival was greatest in soil amended with poultry compost and least in soil containing alkaline-pH-stabilized dairy cattle manure compost. Survival profiles of Salmonella on vegetables and soil samples contaminated by irrigation water were similar to those observed when contamination occurred through compost. Hence, both contaminated manure compost and irrigation water can play an important role in contaminating soil and root vegetables with salmonellae for several months.     

Microbial Properties of Composts That Suppress Damping-Off and Root Rot of Creeping Bentgrass Caused by Pythium graminicola

Composts prepared from a variety of feedstocks were tested for their ability to suppress seedling and root diseases of creeping bentgrass caused by Pythium graminicola. Among the most suppressive materials in laboratory experiments were different batches of a brewery sludge compost and a biosolids compost from Endicott, N.Y. Batches of these composts that were initially not suppressive to Pythium damping-off became more suppressive with increasing compost age. Leaf, yard waste, food, and spent mushroom composts as well as certain biosolids, cow manure, chicken-cow manure, and leaf-chicken manure composts were not suppressive to Pythium damping-off. In some cases, turkey litter, chicken manure, chicken-leaf, and food waste composts were inhibitory to creeping bentgrass seed germination in laboratory experiments. Microbial populations varied among all of the composts tested. Bacterial populations were high in all composts except the turkey litter compost, in which populations were 1,000- to 10,000-fold lower than in the other composts tested. Among the highest populations of heterotrophic fungi and antibiotic-producing actinomycetes were those found in all batches of the brewery sludge compost, whereas the lowest populations were found in turkey litter, chicken manure, and food waste composts. Heat treatment of suppressive composts reduced populations of bacteria, fungi, and actinomycetes in all composts tested. Disease suppressiveness was also reduced or eliminated in heated composts. Amending heated composts with small amounts of nonheated compost restored suppressive properties and partially restored microbial populations to wild-type levels. A strong negative relationship between compost microbial activity (as measured by the hydrolysis of fluorescein diacetate) and Pythium damping-off severity was observed. When composts were applied to creeping bentgrass in field experiments, a significant level of suppressiveness was evident with some composts when disease pressure was high (i.e., disease ratings high in uninoculated plots). A 1991 batch of turkey litter compost and the 1990 batch of Endicott biosolids were consistently suppressive to foliar symptoms of Pythium root rot on creeping bentgrass. This study indicates that suppression of Pythium diseases of creeping bentgrass in batches of brewery sludge and Endicott biosolids composts, and possibly in other suppressive composts examined in less detail in this study, is related directly to the microbial activities in the composts. On the other hand, the mechanisms of Pythium suppression in turkey litter and perhaps other poultry-based composts is not related directly to the compost microbial activity. Although turkey litter showed a lack of suppressiveness in laboratory bioassays and low microbial populations and activity, it resulted in a significant and consistent level of suppressiveness in field experiments. Therefore, the microbiological properties of Pythium-suppressive composts may differ substantially, and measurements of microbial populations and activity may not be predictive of the level of disease suppression in all composts.     

Agricultural by-products provide critical habitat components for cold-climate populations of an oviparous snake (Natrix natrix)

Populations of snakes and other reptiles are declining worldwide. Habitat loss and degradation is thought to be a significant factor in these declines, so to improve management strategies it is important to increase our understanding of reptilian habitat requirements. Modern agriculture is abandoning the tradition of gathering compost and manure in large heaps. Consequently these unusually warm environments are disappearing from the landscape. This may imperil populations of grass snakes (Natrix natrix) that rely on these anthropogenic heat sources to incubate their eggs. We conducted a relocation experiment to examine if eggs can develop successfully in other more natural environments that grass snakes potentially could utilize in the absence of manure heaps and compost piles. We found that hatching success was high (71?%) when we placed eggs in manure heaps and non-existent (0?%) when we placed them in potential ‘natural’ nests. Placement in compost piles resulted in intermediate (43?%) hatching success. Eggs in manure heaps hatched earlier than eggs in compost piles and thermal data from the nests showed that temperatures were higher and more stable in manure heaps than in compost piles and potential ‘natural’ nests. Jointly these results suggest that manure heaps generally provide a better nesting habitat than compost piles, attributable to thermal differences between the environments. Our findings facilitate improvement of current management strategies and have implications for conservation of oviparous reptiles in general.     

Characterization of dairy cattle manure/wallboard paper compost mixture

The aim of this research was to evaluate the use of manufacturing wallboard paper scraps as an alternative bulking agent for dairy cattle manure composting. The characteristics of the composting process were studied based on the changes in physico-chemical parameters and final compost quality. Composting of dairy cattle manure with wallboard paper was performed in a 481-L cylindrical reactor with vacuum-type aeration. Rapid degradation of organic matter was observed during the thermophilic stage of composting due to high microbial activity. High temperature and alkaline pH conditions promoted intense ammonia emission during the early stage of composting. The number of mesophilic and thermophilic microorganisms were found to be affected by changes in temperature at different composting stages. The total nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), and sodium (Na) concentrations of the mixture did not change significantly after 28days of composting. However, the presence of gypsum in the paper scraps increased the calcium content of the final compost. The wallboard paper had no phyto-inhibitory effects as shown by high germination index of final compost (GI=99%).     

Effect of matured compost as a bulking and inoculating agent on the microbial community and maturity of cattle manure compost

Cattle manure composts were consecutively manufactured. Compost that reached maturity first was used as a bulking and inoculating agent for subsequent compost production. The microbial community was measured through phospholipid fatty acid analysis. Changes in the content of fatty acid methyl esters derived from phospholipids were similar in all the composts. The diversity index for the fatty acid methyl ester content increased in the secondary-produced compost from the onset of composting. Microbial succession was accelerated using matured compost. The proportion of biomarker fatty acids for gram-positive bacteria also increased in the secondary-produced compost from the early stage of composting. Changes in germination index indicated the maturity stage of the compost. The proportion of biomarker fatty acids for gram-positive bacteria was positively correlated to the germination index, indicating that phospholipid fatty acid analysis is an indicator for evaluating the maturity of cattle manure composts.     

Fate of Salmonella enterica Serovar Typhimurium on Carrots and Radishes Grown in Fields Treated with Contaminated Manure Composts or Irrigation Water

Three different types of compost, PM-5 (poultry manure compost), 338 (dairy cattle manure compost), and NVIRO-4 (alkaline-pH-stabilized dairy cattle manure compost), and irrigation water were inoculated with an avirulent strain of Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium at 10⁷ CFU g⁻¹ and 10⁵ CFU ml⁻¹, respectively, to determine the persistence of salmonellae in soils containing these composts, in irrigation water, and also on carrots and radishes grown in these contaminated soils. A split-plot block design plan was used for each crop, with five treatments (one without compost, three with each of the three composts, and one without compost but with contaminated water applied) and five replicates for a total of 25 plots for each crop, with each plot measuring 1.8 × 4.6 m. Salmonellae persisted for an extended period of time, with the bacteria surviving in soil samples for 203 to 231 days, and were detected after seeds were sown for 84 and 203 days on radishes and carrots, respectively. Salmonella survival was greatest in soil amended with poultry compost and least in soil containing alkaline-pH-stabilized dairy cattle manure compost. Survival profiles of Salmonella on vegetables and soil samples contaminated by irrigation water were similar to those observed when contamination occurred through compost. Hence, both contaminated manure compost and irrigation water can play an important role in contaminating soil and root vegetables with salmonellae for several months.     

不同有机物料对渭北旱塬耕地土壤短期培肥效应的综合评价

通过田间试验和室内分析,研究了施用不同有机物料对渭北旱塬耕地土壤化学性质和酶活性的影响,选取有机质等10个能够反映土壤肥力质量特性的定量因子作为评价指标,采用因子分析对土壤肥力质量进行综合评分,然后用欧氏距离最短距离法对其进行聚类,最后利用作物产量结果进行验证.结果表明：通过土壤有机培肥,土壤肥力质量和作物产量均有显著提高,与单施化肥相比,施加秸秆堆肥和厩肥处理的小麦产量分别提高了20.43%和22.38%;对土壤肥力综合进行评价,秸秆堆肥配施化肥的土壤肥力质量最高,综合得分达56.53,厩肥配施化肥较高,高量秸秆配施化肥次之.可见,通过秸秆堆肥或厩肥配施化肥进行培肥土壤,能显著提高土壤肥力水平,从而提高作物产量;利用有机质等10项土壤肥力特性因子,采用因子分析对土壤肥力质量进行综合评价,能够准确反映土壤肥力水平,预测土壤生产力状况.     

Changes in Bacterial and Fungal Communities across Compost Recipes,Preparation Methods,and Composting Times

Compost production is a critical component of organic waste handling, and compost applications to soil are increasingly important to crop production. However, we know surprisingly little about the microbial communities involved in the composting process and the factors shaping compost microbial dynamics. Here, we used high-throughput sequencing approaches to assess the diversity and composition of both bacterial and fungal communities in compost produced at a commercial-scale. Bacterial and fungal communities responded to both compost recipe and composting method. Specifically, bacterial communities in manure and hay recipes contained greater relative abundances of Firmicutes than hardwood recipes with hay recipes containing relatively more Actinobacteria and Gemmatimonadetes. In contrast, hardwood recipes contained a large relative abundance of Acidobacteria and Chloroflexi. Fungal communities of compost from a mixture of dairy manure and silage-based bedding were distinguished by a greater relative abundance of Pezizomycetes and Microascales. Hay recipes uniquely contained abundant Epicoccum, Thermomyces, Eurotium, Arthrobotrys, and Myriococcum. Hardwood recipes contained relatively abundant Sordariomycetes. Holding recipe constant, there were significantly different bacterial and fungal communities when the composting process was managed by windrow, aerated static pile, or vermicompost. Temporal dynamics of the composting process followed known patterns of degradative succession in herbivore manure. The initial community was dominated by Phycomycetes, followed by Ascomycota and finally Basidiomycota. Zygomycota were associated more with manure-silage and hay than hardwood composts. Most commercial composters focus on the thermophilic phase as an economic means to insure sanitation of compost from pathogens. However, the community succeeding the thermophilic phase begs further investigation to determine how the microbial dynamics observed here can be best managed to generate compost with the desired properties.     

Persistence of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis and other zoonotic pathogens during simulated composting, manure packing, and liquid storage of dairy manure

Livestock manures contain numerous microorganisms which can infect humans and/or animals, such as Escherichia coli O157:H7, Listeria monocytogenes, Salmonella spp., and Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis (Mycobacterium paratuberculosis). The effects of commonly used manure treatments on the persistence of these pathogens have rarely been compared. The objective of this study was to compare the persistence of artificially inoculated M. paratuberculosis, as well as other naturally occurring pathogens, during the treatment of dairy manure under conditions that simulate three commonly used manure management methods: thermophilic composting at 55 degrees C, manure packing at 25 degrees C (or low-temperature composting), and liquid lagoon storage. Straw and sawdust amendments used for composting and packing were also compared. Manure was obtained from a large Ohio free-stall dairy herd and was inoculated with M. paratuberculosis at 10(6) CFU/g in the final mixes. For compost and pack treatments, this manure was amended with sawdust or straw to provide an optimal moisture content (60%) for composting for 56 days. To simulate liquid storage, water was added to the manure (to simulate liquid flushing and storage) and the slurry was placed in triplicate covered 4-liter Erlenmeyer flasks, incubated under ambient conditions for 175 days. The treatments were sampled on days 0, 3, 7, 14, 28, and 56 for the detection of pathogens. The persistence of M. paratuberculosis was also assessed by a PCR hybridization assay. After 56 days of composting, from 45 to 60% of the carbon in the compost treatments was converted to CO2, while no significant change in carbon content was observed in the liquid slurry. Escherichia coli, Salmonella, and Listeria were all detected in the manure and all of the treatments on day 0. After 3 days of composting at 55 degrees C, none of these organisms were detectable. In liquid manure and pack treatments, some of these microorganisms were detectable up to 28 days. M. paratuberculosis was detected by standard culture only on day 0 in all the treatments, but was undetectable in any treatment at 3 and 7 days. On days 14, 28, and 56, M. paratuberculosis was detected in the liquid storage treatment but remained undetectable in the compost and pack treatments. However, M. paratuberculosis DNA was detectable through day 56 in all treatments and up to day 175 in liquid storage treatments. Taken together, the results indicate that high-temperature composting is more effective than pack storage or liquid storage of manure in reducing these pathogens in dairy manure. Therefore, thermophilic composting is recommended for treatment of manures destined for pathogen-sensitive environments such as those for vegetable production, residential gardening, or application to rapidly draining fields.