The performance of biological anaerobic filters packed with sludge-fly ash ceramic particles (SFCP) and commercial ceramic particles (CCP) during the restart period: Effect of the C/N ratios and filter media

Two lab-scale upflow biological anaerobic filters (BAF) packed with sludge-fly ash ceramic particles (SFCP) and commercial ceramic particles (CCP) were employed to investigate effects of the C/N ratios and filter media on the BAF performance during the restart period. The results indicated that BAF could be restarted normally after one-month cease. The C/N ratio of 4.0 was the thresholds of nitrate removal and nitrite accumulation. TN removal and phosphate uptake reached the maximum value at the same C/N ratio of 5.5. Ammonia formation was also found and excreted a negative influence on TN removal, especially when higher C/N ratios were applied. Nutrients were mainly degraded within the height of 25 cm from the bottom. In addition, SFCP, as novel filter media manufactured by wastes–dewatered sludge and fly ash, represented a better potential in inhibiting nitrite accumulation, TN removal and phosphate uptake due to their special characteristics in comparison with CCP.     

Effect of sludge-fly ash ceramic particles (SFCP) on synthetic wastewater treatment in an A/O combined biological aerated filter

Novel media-sludge-fly ash ceramic particles (SFCP) employed in an upflow lab-scale A/O BAF were investigated for synthetic wastewater treatment. The influences of hydraulic retention time (HRT), air-liquid ratio (A/L) and recirculation on the removals of chemical oxygen demand (CODcr), ammonia (NH(4)(+)-N) and total nitrogen (TN) were discussed. The optimum operation conditions were obtained as HRT of 2.0 h, A/L of 15:1 and 200% recirculation. Under the optimal conditions, 90% CODcr, more than 98% NH(3)-N and approximately 70% TN were removed. The average consumed volumetric loading rates for CODcr, NH(4)(+)-N and TN with 200% recirculation were 4.06, 0.36 and 0.29 kg(m(3)d)(-1), respectively. The CODcr and TN removal mainly occurred in the anoxic zone, while nitrification was completed at the height of 70 cm from the inlet of the bottom due to a suitable column layout of biological aerated filter (BAF). The characteristics of wastewater and backwashing affected TN removal to a large degree. In addition, the features of media (SFCP) and synthetic wastewater contributed to a strong buffer capacity in the BAF system so that the effluent pH at different media height fluctuated slightly and was insensitive to recirculation.     

Wastewater treatment efficiency of a multi-media biological aerated filter (MBAF) containing clinoptilolite and bioceramsite in a brick-wall embedded design

A multi-media biological aerated filter (MBAF) with clinoptilolite media was used to treat synthetic wastewater. Coal ash bioceramsite with supplemental metallic iron was added to the clinoptilolite media of MBAFs in a brick-wall embedded design. Performance parameters, such as hydraulic, organic, N and P loading capacity and microbial community composition were studied for different quantity of supplemental metallic iron contained in three MBAFs. The MBAFs with more metallic iron were found to have superior hydraulic and organic loading, and higher N and P capacities. COD, NH₃-N and TP removal dropped by 7-10%, 6-7% and 4-5%, respectively, with when hydraulic loading was raised from 2.8 to 7.5 m³ m⁻² d⁻¹. NH₃-N removal also decreased 8-9% when ammonia loading was elevated from 0.078 to 0.156 kg NH₃-N m⁻³ d⁻¹. Real-time PCR revealed a relatively stable bacterial community composed primarily of eubacteria that formed after an initial 120 d operational period. Doubling the amount of metallic iron in the bioceramsite media resulted in a twofold increase of eubacteria in the MBAF, but a decrease in the ratio of anaerobic ammonia-oxidizing bacteria to total bacteria.     

A kinetic analysis and experimental validation of an integrated system of anaerobic filter and biological aerated filter

An anaerobic/aerobic filter (AF/BAF) system was developed treating dairy wastewater. The influent was blended with recirculated effluent to allow for pre-denitrification in the AF followed by nitrification in the BAF. The recirculation ratio ranged 100-300%. The average chemical oxygen demand (COD) removal efficiency was 79.8-86.8% in the AF and the average total nitrogen removal efficiency was 50.5-80.8% in the AF/BAF system. Steady-state mass balances on the AF were used to analyze removal kinetics in the AF. The kinetic model values for effluent COD in the AF were overestimated as compared with experimental data. The integrated suspended and attached biomass growth rates in the AF were estimated. The specific growth rate of the integrated biomass at each recirculation ratios was 0.6213, 0.6647, and 1.20831/day, respectively. The increase in specific growth rate corresponded to increases in biomass sloughing as the recirculation ratio increased.     

Assessing the potential of foamed clay as a biological aerated filter (BAF) medium

Materials used previously as biological aerated filter (BAF) media have not combined optimal biofilm supporting properties with optimal wear characteristics. Increasing its bentonite content decreased the attrition rate and friability of foamed clay. Although the altered medium exhibited less surface roughness, results from small-scale reactors confirmed that it had maintained its biological attributes. This suggests that surface roughness has a limited influence on biofilm formation.     

Process of inorganic nitrogen transformation and design of kinetics model in the biological aerated filter reactor

As one of the plug-flow reactors, biological aerated filter (BAF) reactor was divided into four sampling sectors to understand the characteristics of elemental nitrogen transformation during the reaction process, and then the different characteristics of elemental nitrogen transformation caused by different NH₃-N loadings, biological quantities and activities in each section were obtained. The results showed that the total transformation ratio in the nitrifying reactor was more than 90% in the absence of any organic carbon resource, at the same time, more than 65% NH₃-N in the influent were nitrified at the filter height of 70 cm below under the conditions of the influent runoff 9-19 L/h, the gas-water ratio 4-5:1, the dissolved oxygen 3.0-5.8 mg/L and the NH₃-N load 0.28-0.48 kg NH₃-N/m³ d. On the base of the Eckenfelder mode, the kinetics equation of the NH₃-N transformation along the reactor was S_e = S₀ exp(−0.0134D/L^1.2612).     

Performances of constructed wetlands for municipal wastewater treatment in rural mountainous area

A global performance evaluation of an experimental Horizontal SubSurface Flow Constructed Wetlands (HSSF) was made after 6 years of functioning. This wetland is situated in French prealpine mountain, at 720 m elevation. The HSSF process treatment consists in a three-stage system dimensioned for 350 People Equivalent. Different helophytes were planted such as Typha latifolia, Phragmites australis and Scirpus maritimus. The mean hydraulic residence time for sewage was closed to 4–5 days, but in summer the mean pollutant residence time increases to 6 days due to an important evapotranspiration. There is no clogging of the gravel matrix and the hydraulic conductivity was very good and stabilized. Removal pollutant efficiency was determinate at each stages. There was a high removal of total suspended solids (TSS) all year around with an average of 95.6% (±3.6). More than 80% of removal occurred in the first stage. Physical processes (decantation, filtration) associated with biological oxidation were the principal factors of this removal. For COD and BOD₅, removal efficiency in the first stage were close to 60% on average and more than 90% at the outlet of the wetland. These results are similar to those observed with SSFW in many cases. Influence of temperature seems very weak because there were no significant seasonal variations of the process efficiency. Minimum effluent quality standards (30 mg l^–1 TSS; 120 mg l^–1 COD; 40 mg l^–1 BOD₅) were always respected. In cold periods, nutrients uptake was reduced but remained up to 60% in average. Mean bacterial removal efficiency was about two order of magnitude (99%) but can reach up to five order of magnitude in summer. These cyclic variations follow a sinusoidal variation around an annual mean. Pollutants removals were correlated to their respective loadings and no limits has been observed except for nitrogen. These results confirm that SSFW, an ecotechnology, should be considered as an alternative to conventional treatment methods (activated sludge, fixed biofilm) for small communities even in mountainous area.     

浮床黑麦草对城市生活污水氮循环细菌繁衍和脱氮效果的影响

通过设施大棚内容积为1.5m3的人工模拟池试验,研究了浮床黑麦草对模拟城市生活污水氮循环细菌繁衍和脱氮效果的影响。通过研究,阐明浮床植物去除污染水体氮素的可能途径。研究结果表明:浮床黑麦草对模拟城市生活污水总氮和氨氮的去除效果分别达到了31.6%和43.0%;浮床黑麦草根际和根系正下方是各类氮循环细菌生长的最佳区域;浮床黑麦草处理有效地提高了系统氮循环细菌的数量,16d的试验结束时细菌总数(A,单位为CFU.mL-1)达到最大值,其lg(A/(CFU.mL-1))增加至8.82,各类氮循环细菌比对照高3-5个数量级;同时,浮床黑麦草处理显著提高了氮循环细菌的群落多样性,系统内氨化菌、硝化菌、亚硝化菌和反硝化菌共存;明确了浮床黑麦草的吸收同化和氮循环细菌的生物脱氮是浮床黑麦草净化水质的两个重要途径。     

Preparation of ultra-lightweight sludge ceramics (ULSC) and application for pharmaceutical advanced wastewater treatment in a biological aerobic filter (BAF)

Novel media-ultra-lightweight sludge ceramics (ULSC) employed in an upflow lab-scale biological aerobic filter (BAF) were investigated for pharmaceutical advanced wastewater treatment. The influences of the volume ratio of pharmaceutical wastewater to domestic wastewater (PW/DW), hydraulic retention time (HRT) and air-liquid ratio (A/L) on chemical oxygen demand (CODCr) and ammonium (NH(4)(+)-N) of the effluent were investigated. When PW/DW of 4:1, HRT of 6 h, and A/L of 5:1 were applied, the mean effluent concentration of NH(4)(+)-N was 6.2 mg L(-1), and the maximum CODCr concentration in the effluent was 96 mg L(-1). Both NH(4)(+)-N and CODCr did not exceed the limits of the national discharge standards (NH(4)(+)-N ≤ 15 mg L(-1), CODCr ≤ 100 mg L(-1)). In addition, the BAF system showed a strong capacity of further removal from NH(4)(+)-N of the effluent.     

Effects of low-concentration Cr(VI) on the performance and the membrane fouling of a submerged membrane bioreactor in the treatment of municipal wastewater

The effects of low-concentration Cr(VI) (0.4 mg?l^?1) on the performance of a submerged membrane bioreactor (SMBR) in the treatment of municipal wastewater, as well as membrane fouling were investigated. Compared with the SMBR for control municipal wastewater, the SMBR for Cr(VI)-containing municipal wastewater had a higher concentration of soluble microbial products (SMP) with lower molecular weights, and smaller sludge particle sizes. Furthermore, low-concentration Cr(VI) induced membrane fouling, especially irreversible membrane pore blocking, which markedly shortened the service life of the membrane.     

Anaerobic submerged membrane bioreactor (AnSMBR) for municipal wastewater treatment under mesophilic and psychrophilic temperature conditions

A pilot scale anaerobic submerged membrane bioreactor (AnSMBR) with an external filtration unit for municipal wastewater treatment was operated for 100 days. Besides gas sparging, additional shear was created by circulating sludge to control membrane fouling. During the first 69 days, the reactor was operated under mesophilic temperature conditions. Afterwards, the temperature was gradually reduced to 20 °C. A slow and linear increase in the filtration resistance was observed under critical flux conditions (7 L/(m2 h)) at 35 °C. However, an increase in the fouling rate probably linked to an accumulation of solids, a higher viscosity and soluble COD concentrations in the reactor was observed at 20 °C. The COD removal efficiency was close to 90% under both temperature ranges. Effluent COD and BOD5 concentrations were lower than 80 and 25 mg/L, respectively. Pathogen indicator microorganisms (fecal coliforms bacteria) were reduced by log(10)5. Hence, the effluent could be used for irrigation purposes in agriculture.     

Effect of light intensity on algal biomass accumulation and biodiesel production for mixotrophic strains Chlorella kessleri and Chlorella protothecoide cultivated in highly concentrated municipal wastewater

In this research, the effect of light intensity on biomass accumulation, wastewater nutrient removal through algae cultivation, and biodiesel productivity was investigated with algae species Chlorella kessleri and Chlorella protothecoide. The light intensities studied were 0, 15, 30, 60, 120, and 200 μmol m(-2) s(-1). The results showed that light intensity had profound impact on tested responses for both strains, and the dependence of these responses on light intensity varied with different algae strains. For C. kessleri, the optimum light intensity was 120 μmol m(-2) S(-1) for all responses except for COD removal. For C. protothecoide, the optimum light intensity was 30 μmol m(-2) S(-1). The major components of the biodiesel produced from algae biomass were 16-C and 18-C FAME, and the highest biodiesel contents were 24.19% and 19.48% of dried biomass for C. kessleri and C. protothecoide, respectively. Both species were capable of wastewater nutrients removal under all lighting conditions with high removal efficiencies.     

Improvement strategy on enhanced biological phosphorus removal for municipal wastewater treatment plants: full-scale operating parameters, sludge activities, and microbial features

The poor quality of effluent discharged by municipal wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) is threatening the safety of water ecology. This study, which integrated a field survey, batch tests, and microbial community identification, was designed to improve the effectiveness of the enhanced biological phosphorus removal (EBPR) process for WWTPs. Over two-thirds of the investigated WWTPs could not achieve total P in effluent lower than 0.5 mg/L, mainly due to the high ratio of chemical oxygen demand to P (28.6-196.2) in the influent. The rates of anaerobic P release and aerobic P uptake for the activated sludge varied from 0.22 to 7.9 mg/g VSS/h and 0.43 to 8.11 mg/g VSS/h, respectively. The fraction of Accumulibacter (PAOs: polyphosphate accumulating organisms) was 4.8 ± 2.0% of the total biomass, while Competibacter (GAOs: glycogen-accumulating organisms) accounted for 4.8 ± 6.4%. The anaerobic P-release rate was found to be an effective indicator of EBPR. Four classifications of the principal components were identified to improve the EBPR effluent quality and sludge activity.     

Enhanced COD and nitrogen removals for the treatment of swine wastewater by combining submerged membrane bioreactor (MBR) and anaerobic upflow bed filter (AUBF) reactor

In order to enhance performances of organics removal and nitrification for the treatment of swine wastewater containing high concentration of organic solids and nitrogen than conventional biological nitrogen removal process, a submerged membrane bioreactor (MBR) was followed by an anaerobic upflow bed filter (AUBF) reactor in this research (AUBF–MBR process). The AUBF reactor is a hybrid reactor, which is the combination of an anoxic filter for denitrification and upflow anaerobic sludge blanket (UASB) for acid fermentation. In the AUBF–MBR process, it showed a considerable enhancement of the effluent quality in terms of COD removal and nitrification. The submerged MBR could maintain more than 14,000 mg VSS/L of the biomass concentration. Total nitrogen (T-N) removal efficiency represented 60% when internal recycle ratio was three times of flow-rate (Q), although the nitrification occurred completely. Although the volatile fatty acids produced in AUBF reactor can enhance denitrification rate, but the AUBF–MBR process showed reduction of overall removal efficiency of the nitrogen due to the reduction of carbon source by methane production in the AUBF reactor compared to that of theoretical nitrogen removal efficiency.

Long-term operation of the submerged MBR showed that the throughputs of the submerged MBR were respectively 74, 63, and 31 days at 10, 15, and 30 L/m² h (LMH) of permeate flux. Resistance to filtration by rejected solid is the primary cause of fouling, however the priority of cake resistance (R_c) and fouling resistance (R_f) with respect to filtration phenomenon was different according to the amount of permeate flux. The submerged MBR, here, achieved a steady-state flux of 15 LMH at 0.4 atm. of trans-membrane pressure (TMP) but the flux can be enhanced in the future because shear force by tangential flow will be greater when multi-layer sheets of membrane were used.     

Development of a novel titration and off-gas analysis (TOGA) sensor for study of biological processes in wastewater treatment systems

The development of the new TOGA (titration and off-gas analysis) sensor for the detailed study of biological processes in wastewater treatment systems is outlined. The main innovation of the sensor is the amalgamation of titrimetric and off-gas measurement techniques. The resulting measured signals are: hydrogen ion production rate (HPR), oxygen transfer rate (OTR), nitrogen transfer rate (NTR), and carbon dioxide transfer rate (CTR). While OTR and NTR are applicable to aerobic and anoxic conditions, respectively, HPR and CTR are useful signals under all of the conditions found in biological wastewater treatment systems, namely, aerobic, anoxic and anaerobic. The sensor is therefore a powerful tool for studying the key biological processes under all these conditions. A major benefit from the integration of the titrimetric and off-gas analysis methods is that the acid/base buffering systems, in particular the bicarbonate system, are properly accounted for. Experimental data resulting from the TOGA sensor in aerobic, anoxic, and anaerobic conditions demonstrates the strength of the new sensor. In the aerobic environment, carbon oxidation (using acetate as an example carbon source) and nitrification are studied. Both the carbon and ammonia removal rates measured by the sensor compare very well with those obtained from off-line chemical analysis. Further, the aerobic acetate removal process is examined at a fundamental level using the metabolic pathway and stoichiometry established in the literature, whereby the rate of formation of storage products is identified. Under anoxic conditions, the denitrification process is monitored and, again, the measured rate of nitrogen gas transfer (NTR) matches well with the removal of the oxidised nitrogen compounds (measured chemically). In the anaerobic environment, the enhanced biological phosphorus process was investigated. In this case, the measured sensor signals (HPR and CTR) resulting from acetate uptake were used to determine the ratio of the rates of carbon dioxide production by competing groups of microorganisms, which consequently is a measure of the activity of these organisms. The sensor involves the use of expensive equipment such as a mass spectrometer and requires special gases to operate, thus incurring significant capital and operational costs. This makes the sensor more an advanced laboratory tool than an on-line sensor.     

Impacts of a tertiary treated municipal wastewater effluent on the carbon and nitrogen stable isotope signatures of two darter species (Etheostoma blennioides and E. caeruleum) in a small receiving environment

This study contrasted the influence of tertiary treated municipal wastewater effluent (MWWE) exposure on the abundance, food selection (stomach contents), and carbon (δ¹³C) and nitrogen (δ¹⁵N) stable isotope signatures of Rainbow Darter (Etheostoma caeruleum) and Greenside Darter (Etheostoma blennioides) in a small receiving stream in southern Ontario, Canada. Despite tertiary treatment resulting in relatively high effluent quality, there is continued concern for environmental degradation downstream of the effluent outfall because of the relatively small size of the receiving environment and recent studies that have indicated changes occurring in relative fish abundance and stable isotope signatures. In July and August of 2009 fish and benthic invertebrate communities were examined along with analysis of δ¹³C and δ¹⁵N of the most common species to determine the effects of effluent exposure on the food web. Rainbow Darter increased in abundance and their δ¹⁵N values were enriched immediately downstream of the effluent outfall throughout the summer (July and August). In contrast, while δ¹⁵N of Greenside Darter followed a similar pattern in July, they were not enriched in August. The benthic community was changed immediately downstream of the outfall and the δ¹⁵N of invertebrates was enriched, similar to that observed in Rainbow Darter. Stomach contents of the two darter species diverged the most in the summer possibly explaining some of the changes in δ¹³C and δ¹⁵N among sites. It is possible that Greenside Darter fed on less enriched food downstream of the outfall, or fed outside of the effluent plume during the summer. Rainbow Darter may be able to exploit the changes in habitat and prey composition, resulting in differences in relative abundance of darters immediately downstream of the effluent outfall.     

Impact of biological (Rotstop) and chemical (urea) treatments on fungal community structure in freshly cut Picea abies stumps

To control the infections by root rot fungi Heterobasidion spp., surfaces of freshly cut Norway spruce stumps are covered either by a biological (Rotstop; spore suspension of competitive saprotrophic fungus Phlebiopsis gigantea), or by a chemical (35% aqueous solution of urea) compound. In Fennoscandia, Rotstop and urea are applied, respectively, on 47,000 ha and on 2000 ha of forestland each year. The aim of this work was to assess the impact of biological and chemical control on biodiversity in communities of non-target fungi in freshly cut (7-week-old) stumps. Isolation of fungi to pure culture was accomplished from 402 wood samples taken from 63 stumps, 21 treated with each of the compounds and 21 untreated. The isolations yielded 368 distinct fungal strains representing 47 species. Stump treatment led to decrease of species richness both in Rotstop-treated (by 15%) and in urea-treated (by 19%) stumps. Nevertheless, the stumps subjected to the biological compound were colonized mainly by the same fungi that occurred naturally in untreated stumps (Sorensen similarity indices; S_S=0.69; S_N=0.68). By contrast, chemical treatment strongly promoted stump colonization by Ascomycetes and Deuteromycetes, led to significant decrease of Zygomycetes, and almost completely eliminated Basidiomycetes (including Heterobasidion spp.). Thus, resemblance to a natural community was low (S_S=0.45; S_N=0.34). Rotstop treatment decreased significantly the extent of stump colonization by Heterobasidion spp., and increased that of P. gigantea. All strains of the latter were genetically identical among themselves and to the Rotstop strain. The mechanisms of biological and chemical control, and biodiversity aspects are discussed.     

Effects of phase vector and history extension on prediction power of adaptive-network based fuzzy inference system (ANFIS) model for a real scale anaerobic wastewater treatment plant operating under unsteady state

A conceptual neural fuzzy model based on adaptive-network based fuzzy inference system, ANFIS, was proposed using available input on-line and off-line operational variables for a sugar factory anaerobic wastewater treatment plant operating under unsteady state to estimate the effluent chemical oxygen demand, COD. The predictive power of the developed model was improved as a new approach by adding the phase vector and the recent values of COD up to 5–10 days, longer than overall retention time of wastewater in the system. History of last 10 days for COD effluent with two-valued phase vector in the input variable matrix including all parameters had more predictive power. History of 7 days with two-valued phase vector in the matrix comprised of only on-line variables yielded fairly well estimations. The developed ANFIS model with phase vector and history extension has been able to adequately represent the behavior of the treatment system.