Real-time probing of membrane transport in living microbial cells using single nanoparticle optics and living cell imaging

Membrane transport plays a leading role in a wide spectrum of cellular and subcellular pathways, including multidrug resistance (MDR), cellular signaling, and cell-cell communication. Pseudomonas aeruginosa is renowned for its intriguing membrane transport mechanisms, such as the interplay of membrane permeability and extrusion machinery, leading to selective accumulation of specific intracellular substances and MDR. Despite extensive studies, the mechanisms of membrane transport in living microbial cells remain incompletely understood. In this study, we directly measure real-time change of membrane permeability and pore sizes of P. aeruginosa at the nanometer scale using the intrinsic color index (surface plasmon resonance spectra) of silver (Ag) nanoparticles as the nanometer size index probes. The results show that Ag nanoparticles with sizes ranging up to 80 nm are accumulated in living microbial cells, demonstrating that these Ag nanoparticles transport through the inner and outer membrane of the cells. In addition, a greater number of larger intracellular Ag nanoparticles are observed in the cells as chloramphenicol concentration increases, suggesting that chloramphenicol increases membrane permeability and porosity. Furthermore, studies of mutants (nalB-1 and DeltaABM) show that the accumulation rate of intracellular Ag nanoparticles depends on the expression level of the extrusion pump (MexAB-OprM), suggesting that the extrusion pump plays an important role in controlling the accumulation of Ag nanoparticles in living cells. Moreover, the accumulation kinetics measured by Ag nanoparticles are similar to those measured using a small fluorescent molecule (EtBr), eliminating the possibility of steric and size effects of Ag nanoparticle probes. Susceptibility measurements also suggest that a low concentration of Ag nanoparticles (1.3 pM) does not create significant toxicity for the cells, further validating that single Ag nanoparticles (1.3 pM) can be used as biocompatible nanoprobes for the study of membrane transport kinetics in living microbial cells.     

A model for computer simulation of P-glycoprotein and transmembrane delta pH-mediated anthracycline transport in multidrug-resistant tumor cells

Anthracycline resistance in multidrug-resistant (MDR) tumor cells is due in part to a reduced cellular drug accumulation. Using a simple kinetic model and numerical computer simulations, we have analyzed mathematically the following possible mechanisms controlling fluxes of the membrane permeable anthracyclines in MDR cells: (1) active outward transport via a specific drug transporter (P-glycoprotein), (2) exocytotic drug export via the endosomal vesicle system, and (3) pH-gradients across the plasma membrane. Model calculations were based on morphometric and kinetic data previously presented in the literature for daunorubicin transport in wild-type Ehrlich ascites tumor cells (EHR2) and the corresponding daunorubicin (DNR)-resistant cell line EHR2/DNR+. The results confirm the possible importance of the cell-surface pH in controlling DNR accumulation in the cells. With P-glycoprotein as the main efflux pump, a catalytic constant of the protein greater than 40 mol DNR transported/mol protein per min is predicted by the model calculations. Changes in the drug binding affinity of P-glycoprotein (Km = 10(-9)-10(-6) M) is of little importance in influencing its effectiveness to reduce DNR accumulation, which could explain the broad substrate specificity of the MDR efflux pump system. The conditions to evaluate unidirectional fluxes of DNR across the plasma membrane in cells with active P-glycoprotein are defined. An efflux mechanism which relies solely on pH-dependent drug trapping in a pH 5 endosomal compartment by a simple diffusion process followed by exocytosis, appears inadequate to account for the high rate of DNR efflux in EHR2/DNR+ cells.     

Interplay between the efflux pump and the outer membrane permeability barrier in fluorescent dye accumulation in Pseudomonas aeruginosa.

Pseudomonas aeruginosa encodes three types of xenobiotic efflux pumps, MexAB-OprM, MexCD-OprJ, and MexEF-OprN, which are regulated by the nalB, nfxB, and nfxC genes, respectively, and their high expression renders the cells resistant to multiple species of antibiotics. We evaluated the role of the outer membrane permeability barrier and the efflux pump in lowering the intracellular concentration of fluorescent probes. The wild-type, nalB, nfxB, and nfxC strains with an intact outer membrane showed equally high capability in draining out intracellular fluorescent dye, 2-(4-dimethylaminostyryl)-1-ethylpyridinium and ethidium bromide. When the outer membrane barrier was dismantled by the EDTA treatment, wild-type, nfxC, nfxB, and nalB strains showed significantly different levels of dye accumulation. The polymyxin B-treated cells showed an even more pronounced difference in dye accumulation among the nfxC, nfxB, and nalB mutants. We concluded from these results that the xenobiotic extrusion pumps interplay with the outer membrane permeability barrier in lowering the intracellular substrate concentration. Among three extrusion pumps in P. aeruginosa, MexAB-OprM was the most efficient, followed by MexCD-OprJ and MexEF-OprN pumps for the fluorescent dye extrusion.     

P-glycoprotein: multidrug-resistance and a superfamily of membrane-associated transport proteins

The study of multidrug resistance (MDR) in tumor cell lines has led to the discovery of the plasma membrane P-glycoprotein (Pgp) molecule. This protein functions as an energy-dependent pump for the efflux of diverse anticancer drugs from MDR cells. It now appears that Pgp-mediated MDR tumor cells do occur in human cancers, and that they are likely to play a role in the ultimate response of patients to chemotherapy. Chemosensitizers, compounds able to reverse the MDR phenotype, have been identified and offer the exciting possibility of improving efficacy for some nonresponsive malignancies. Surprisingly, Pgp-like molecules can be found in evolutionarily distant species among both eukaryotes and prokaryotes. As a group, these proteins form a superfamily of ATP-dependent transport proteins. This finding has broad implications and provides new insights into how living organisms use this fundamental transport system to regulate the trafficking of diverse molecules across biological membranes.     

Membrane homoeostasis and multidrug resistance in yeast

The development of MDR (multidrug resistance) in yeast is due to a number of mechanisms. The most documented mechanism is enhanced extrusion of drugs mediated by efflux pump proteins belonging to either the ABC (ATP-binding cassette) superfamily or MFS (major facilitator superfamily). These drug-efflux pump proteins are localized on the plasma membrane, and the milieu therein affects their proper functioning. Several recent studies demonstrate that fluctuations in membrane lipid composition affect the localization and proper functioning of the MDR efflux pump proteins. Interestingly, the efflux pumps of the ABC superfamily are particularly susceptible to imbalances in membrane-raft lipid constituents. This review focuses on the importance of the membrane environment in functioning of the drug-efflux pumps and explores a correlation between MDR and membrane lipid homoeostasis.     

革兰氏阴性菌AcrAB-TolC多药外排泵结构数据对抑制剂研发的启示

革兰氏阴性菌的多重耐药性已成为全球广泛聚焦的问题。近年研究发现,耐药结节细胞分化(resistance-nodulation-cell division,RND)家族外排泵的过表达,与革兰氏阴性菌的多重耐药性密切相关。在RND家族中,广泛存在于革兰氏阴性菌中的AcrAB-TolC外排泵被认为是导致多重耐药性的主要原因之一。为了开发有效的抑制剂,需要对AcrAB-TolC外排泵的结构有一个清晰的认识。以往对该外排泵结构的研究主要局限于体外采用X射线晶体学技术或冷冻电镜单颗粒分析技术来解析其单个组分或全泵的结构。细胞冷冻电子断层扫描技术为揭示AcrAB-TolC外排泵在天然细胞膜环境中的组装和运行机制提供了新的见解,本文综述了AcrAB-TolC不同层级的结构数据在研发外排泵抑制剂方面的贡献。     

Multidrug-resistance phenotype of a subpopulation of T-lymphocytes without drug selection

Multidrug-resistant (MDR) cells demonstrate the increased activity of the membrane transport system performing efflux of diverse lipophylic drugs and fluorescent dyes from the cells. In order to detect MDR cells we have developed a simple test consisting of three steps: staining of the cells with fluorescent dye rhodamine 123, incubation in the dye-free medium and, finally, detection by fluorescence microscopy of the cells that have lost accumulated dye. The experiments with B-lymphoma cell lines with different degrees of MDR have shown that the cell fluorescence after the poststaining incubation is indeed inversely proportional to the degree of resistance. Application of this testing procedure to normal human or mouse leukocytes revealed the presence of the cells rapidly losing the dye in these populations. Cell fractionation experiments have shown that there are T-lymphocytes (most T-killers/suppressors and a part of T-helpers) that demonstrate rapid efflux of rhodamine 123. This characteristic was detected also in T-killer clones and cell line and in some T-lymphomas. The inhibitors of the MDR transport system, reserpine and verapamil, blocked the efflux of the dye from these cells. Rhodamine-losing T-lymphoma contained large amounts of the mRNA coding P-glycoprotein, the MDR efflux pump, and demonstrated increased resistance to rhodamine 123, gramicidin D, colchicine, and vincristine, the drugs belonging to the cross-resistance group for the MDR cells. The role of the increased activity of the MDR membrane transport system in T-lymphocytes is discussed.     

PSC833, cyclosporin A, and dexniguldipine effects on cellular calcein retention and inhibition of the multidrug resistance pump in human leukemic lymphoblasts

A convenient functional assay of the multidrug resistance (MDR) pump is useful for the diagnosis of MDR-1 cancers and the quantitative determination of the potency of inhibitors of the pump. Calcein-AM, a substrate of the MDR pump, was used to determine the concentration of SDZ PSC833 needed to completely inhibit the pump in CEM/VLB100 drug-resistant cells. The initial rates (in percent) for calcein retention by these MDR-1 cells were used to calculate values for the percent initial efflux of calcein-AM through the MDR pump in the presence of the inhibitors PSC833, cyclosporinA, and dexniguldipine. The percent efflux values at 250 and 60 nM calcein-AM were used to calculate the required concentration of each inhibitor to produce half-inhibition (I50) of initial efflux through the pump. These results are consistent with a noncompetitive inhibition of the MDR pump by each of the three inhibitors.     

P-glycoprotein as multidrug transporter: a critical review of current multidrug resistant cell lines

MDR has been studied extensively in mammalian cell lines. According to usual practice, the MDR phenotype is characterized by the following features: cross resistance to multiple chemotherapeutic agents (lipophilic cations), defective intracellular drug accumulation and retention, overexpression of P-gp (often accompanied by gene amplification), and reversal of the phenotype by addition of calcium channel blockers. An hypothesis for the function of P-gp has been proposed in which P-gp acts as a carrier protein that actively extrudes MDR compounds out of the cells. However, basic questions, such as what defines the specificity of the pump and how is energy for active efflux transduced, remain to be answered. Furthermore, assuming that P-gp acts as a drug transporter, one will expect a relationship between P-gp expression and accumulation defects in MDR cell lines. A review of papers reporting 97 cell lines selected for resistance to the classical MDR compounds has revealed that a connection exists in most of the reported cell lines. However, several exceptions can be pointed out. Furthermore, only a limited number of well characterized series of sublines with different degrees of resistance to a single agent have been reported. In many of these, a correlation between P-gp expresson and transport properties can not be established. Co-amplification of genes adjacent to the mdr1 gene, mutations [122], splicing of mdr1 RNA [123], modulation of P-gp by phosphorylation [124] or glycosylation [127], or experimental conditions [26,78] could account for some of the complexity of the phenotype and the absence of correlation in some of the cell lines. However, both cell lines with overexpression of P-gp without increased efflux [i.e., 67,75] and cell lines without P-gp expression and accumulation defects/increased efflux [i.e., 25,107] have been reported. Thus, current results from MDR cell lines contradict - but do not exclude - that P-gp acts as multidrug transporter. Other models for the mechanism of resistance have been proposed: (1) An energy-dependent permeability barrier working with greater efficacy in resistant cells. This hypothesis is supported by studies of influx which, although few, all except one demonstrate decreased influx in resistant cells; (2) Resistant cells have a greater endosomal volume, and a greater exocytotic activity accounts for the efflux. Furthermore, large amounts of P-gp in the plasma membrane altering the ultrastructure and generalized changes, such as increases or decreases in membrane fluidity, alterations in lipid composition, changes in transmembrane pH gradient and membrane potential have been described in MDR cell lines and could account for some of the findings.     

Kinetics of daunorubicin transport by P-glycoprotein of intact cancer cells.

Drug permeation across the plasma membrane of multidrug-resistant cells depends on the kinetics of the P-glycoprotein-mediated pump activity as well as on the passive permeation of the drug. We here demonstrate a method to characterize kinetically the pump in intact cells. To this purpose, we examined the membrane-transport properties of daunorubicin in various sensitive cancer cell lines and in their multidrug resistant (MDR) counterparts. First, we determined the passive permeability coefficient for daunorubicin. Then, using a flow-through system, the drug flux into the cell was measured after inhibition of the P-glycoprotein-mediated efflux pump. Combining the two results allowed us to calculate the intracellular free concentration of the drug. In the steady-state, the pump rate must equal the net rate of passive diffusion of the drug and, therefore, the same experiments gave us the pumping rate of daunorubicin. These experiments were then repeated at various extracellular drug concentrations. By plotting the pumping rate versus the intracellular drug concentration, we then characterized the P-glycoprotein kinetically. Four independent methods were used to measure the passive permeability coefficient for the cell line A2780. Similar values were obtained. Maximal pump rates (Vmax) showed a good correlation with the amount of P-glycoprotein in the cell lines used. We obtained saturation curves for the variation of the pump rates with the intracellular daunorubicin concentrations. These curves were typical for positive cooperativity, which provides evidence that at least two binding sites for daunorubicin are present on the active transport system of daunorubicin. The apparent Km values for P-glycoprotein-mediated transport, the intracellular free cytosolic daunorubicin concentrations at half-maximal velocity for the cell lines used, were approximately 1.5 microM. Except for the cell lines with the highest amount of P-glycoprotein, the passive efflux rate of daunorubicin proved to be a substantial part of the total daunorubicin efflux rate for the cell lines used. In cell lines with relatively low levels of P-glycoprotein, passive daunorubicin efflux was even the main route of daunorubicin transport from the cells, determining the intracellular steady-state concentrations of daunorubicin.     

The effect of vanadate on the electrogenic Na+/K+ pump, intracellular Na+ concentration and electrophysiological characteristics of mouse skeletal muscle fibre

The present study reports a discrepancy between the effects of vanadate on the membrane Na+-K+-ATPase and the Na+/K+ pump of the skeletal muscle. Vanadate in concentration 4 X 10(-6) mol/l which is necessary to block the enzyme Na+-K+-ATPase activity of membrane fractions failed to inhibit the electrogenic Na+/K+ pump of intact muscle cells. The effect of vanadate on the electrophysiological parameters of the muscle fibre membrane required much higher vanadate levels, but again, Na+/K+ pump was still active. Vanadate in concentrations 4 X 10(-4) and 4 X 10(-5) mol/l depolarized the membrane potential and decreased the membrane resistance [apparently in consequence of enhanced passive membrane permeability for Na+ ions]. Action potentials and the electrical excitability of the muscle fibre membrane were reduced by these vanadate concentrations.     

Influence of daunorubicin on membrane permeability properties: detection by means of intracellular accumulation and efflux of fluorescein

The influence of daunorubicin (DNR) on membrane permeability properties was assessed by studying the ability of living HeLa cells to exhibit fluorochromasia; that is, to take up a fluorogenic substrate and retain the fluorescent compound obtained by enzymatic reaction. The intracellular accumulation of the fluorescent product as well as its release by the cells may be considered indicators of the permeability properties, since both processes are mediated by the cell membrane. The influence of the drug on the accumulation and on the efflux of fluorescein, obtained intracellularly from the hydrolysis of fluorescein diacetate (FDA), was evaluated, after DNR treatment, by measuring the fluorescence intensity of the product in single living cells by flow cytometry. The results showed that DNR, up to a concentration of 5 X 10(-6) M, did not significantly affect the accumulation of fluorescein. On the contrary, the efflux was strongly inhibited. A comparative study of the influence of drugs with known action mechanism was performed with the membrane-active compound hydrocortisone (HC) and with the metabolic inhibitor KCN. The results obtained indicate that DNR significantly affects membrane permeability properties and that its influence is similar to that exerted by metabolic inhibitors.     

Role of Na-K ATPase in regulation of resting membrane potential of cultured rat skeletal myotubes

The role of Na-K ATPase in the determination of resting membrane potential (Em) as a function of extracellular K ion concentration was investigated in cultured rat myotubes. The Em of control myotubes at 37 degrees C varied as a function of (K+)0 with a slope of about 58-60 mV per ten-fold change in (K+)0. Inhibition of the Na-K pump with ouabain or by reduced temperature revealed that this relation consists of two components. One, between (K+)0 of 10 and 100 mM, remains unchanged by alterations in enzyme activity; The second, between (K+)0 of 1 and 10 mM, is related to the amount of Na-K pump activity, the slope decreasing as pump activity decreases. Indeed, with complete inhibition of the Na-K pump, Em does not change over the range of (K+)0 1 to 10 mM. Measurements of 86Rb efflux and input resistance of individual myotubes showed that membrane permeability does not change as (K+)0 increases from 1 to 10 mM but increases as (K+)0 increases further. Monensin, which increases Na ion permeability, increases Em at values of external K+ below 10 mM, and is without effect at higher values of K+ concentration. The effect of monensin is blocked by ouabain. Tetrodotoxin, which blocks voltage-dependent Na+ channels, decreases Em at low (2-10 mM) K+. We conclude that changes in Em as a function of extracellular K+ concentration in the physiological range are not adequately explained by the diffusion potential hypothesis of Em, and that other theories (electrogenic pump, surface-absorption) must be considered.     

Isolation and characterization of VceC gain-of-function mutants that can function with the AcrAB multiple-drug-resistant efflux pump of Escherichia coli

VceC is the outer membrane component of the major facilitator (MF) VceAB-VceC multiple-drug-resistant (MDR) efflux pump of Vibrio cholerae. TolC is the outer membrane component of the resistance-nodulation-division AcrAB-TolC efflux pump of Escherichia coli. Although these proteins share little amino acid sequence identity, their crystal structures can be readily superimposed upon one another. In this study, we have asked if TolC and VceC are interchangeable for the functioning of the AcrAB and VceAB pumps. We have found that TolC can replace VceC to form a functional VceAB-TolC MDR pump, but VceC cannot replace TolC to form a functional AcrAB-VceC pump. However, we have been able to isolate gain-of-function (gof) VceC mutants which can functionally interface with AcrAB. These mutations map to four different amino acids located at the periplasmic tip of VceC. Chemical cross-linkage experiments indicate that both wild-type and gof mutant VceC can physically interact with the AcrAB complex, suggesting that these gof mutations are not affecting the recruitment of VceC to the AcrAB complex but rather its ability to functionally interface with the AcrAB pump.     

Fast kinetic analysis of drug transport in multidrug resistant cells using a pulsed quench-flow apparatus

One major feature of multidrug resistance is the reduced cellular level of drugs maintained by MDR cells. Although there is now strong evidence that drugs are actively pumped out of MDR cells, transport experiments have indicated decreased initial rates of influx at the earliest times at which measurements could be made. We have used a pulsed quench-flow apparatus to study transport characteristics of colchicine resistant MDR cells on a very fast time scale. A rapid association of daunomycin with drug sensitive cells occurred within 0.11 sec. This association is virtually absent in MDR cells. In efflux experiments performed on the same rapid time scale, greater than 50% of daunomycin efflux occurred within 0.1 sec. No substantial efflux from B1, drug sensitive cells was observed. On the other hand, vinblastine accumulation by both cell types was similar for approx. 10 seconds. Thus, kinetically, not all drugs are handled in a similar fashion by MDR cells. The pulsed quench-flow apparatus was useful in making fast time measurements of drug influx and efflux and in demonstrating the differences between drug recognition patterns by MDR cells.     

Captopril inhibits ouabain-sensitive Na+/K+-ATPase

Captopril has been reported to inhibit ouabain-sensitive Na+/K+-ATPase activity in erythrocyte membrane fragments. We investigated the effect of captopril on two physiological measures of Na+/K+ pump activity: 22Na+ efflux from human erythrocytes and K+-induced relaxation of rat tail artery segments. Captopril inhibited 22Na+ efflux from erythrocytes in a concentration-dependent fashion, with 50% inhibition of total 22Na+ efflux at a concentration of 4.8 X 10(-3) M. The inhibition produced by captopril (5 X 10(-3) M) and ouabain (10(-4) M) was not greater than that produced by ouabain alone (65.3 vs. 66.9%, respectively), and captopril inhibited 50% of ouabain-sensitive 22Na+ efflux at a concentration of 2.0 X 10(-3) M. Inhibition by captopril of ouabain-sensitive 22Na efflux was not explained by changes in intracellular sodium concentration, inhibition of angiotensin-converting enzyme or a sulfhydryl effect. Utilizing rat tail arteries pre-contracted with norepinephrine (NE) or serotonin (5HT) in K+-free solutions, we demonstrated dose-related inhibition of K+-induced relaxation by captopril (10(-6) to 10(-4) M). Concentrations above 10(-4) M did not significantly inhibit K+-induced relaxation but did decrease contractile responses to NE, although not to 5HT. Inhibition of K+-induced relaxation by captopril was not affected by saralasin, teprotide or indomethacin. We conclude that captopril can inhibit membrane Na+/K+-ATPase in intact red blood cells and vascular smooth muscle cells. The mechanism of pump suppression is uncertain, but inhibition of ATPase should be considered when high concentrations of captopril are employed in physiological studies.     

Measurement of Pseudomonas aeruginosa multidrug efflux pumps by quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction

Multidrug efflux pumps contribute to multiple antibiotic resistance in Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Pump expression usually has been quantified by Western blotting. Quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction has been developed to measure mRNA expression for genes of interest. Whether this method correlates with pump protein quantities is unclear. We devised a real-time PCR for mRNA expression of MexAB-OprM and MexXY-OprM multidrug efflux pumps. In laboratory strains differing in MexB and MexY expression and in several clinical isolates, protein and mRNA expression correlated well. Quantitative real-time PCR should be a useful alternative in quantitating expression of multidrug efflux pumps by P. aeruginosa isolates in clinical laboratories.     

Control of P-glycoprotein activity by membrane cholesterol amounts and their relation to multidrug resistance in human CEM leukemia cells

P-glycoprotein (P-gp) is the most well-known ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporter involved in unidirectional substrate translocation across the membrane lipid bilayer, thereby causing the typical multidrug resistance (MDR) phenotype expressed in many cancers. We observed that in human CEM acute lymphoblastic leukemia cells expressing various degrees of chemoresistance and where P-gp was the sole MDR-related ABC transporter detected, the amount of esterified cholesterol increased linearly with the level of resistance to vinblastine while the amounts of total and free cholesterol increased in a nonlinear way. Membrane cholesterol controlled the ATPase activity of P-gp in a linear manner, whereas the P-gp-induced daunomycin efflux decreased nonlinearly with the depletion of membrane cholesterol. All these elements suggest that cholesterol controls both the ATPase and the drug efflux activities of P-gp. In addition, in CEM cell lines that expressed increasing levels of elevated chemoresistance, the amount of P-gp increases to a plateau value of 40% of the total membrane proteins and remained unvaried while the amount of membrane cholesterol increased with the elevation of the MDR level, strongly suggesting that cholesterol may be directly involved in the typical MDR phenotype. Finally, we showed that the decreased daunomycin efflux by P-gp due to the partial depletion of membrane cholesterol was responsible for the efficient chemosensitization of resistant CEM cells, which could be totally reversed after cholesterol repletion.     

A relationship between multidrug resistance and growth-state dependent cytotoxicity of the lysosomotropic detergent N-dodecylimidazole.

Multidrug resistance (MDR) in cultured cells and tumors is associated with overproduction of P-glycoprotein, a plasma membrane efflux pump normally present at very low levels. The cytotoxic action of N-dodecylimidazole (C12-Im), a lysosomotropic detergent, on cultured cells was previously shown to be strongly dependent on growth state, with rapidly growing cells being most sensitive and confluent cells most resistant. We show here that this may be due to a growth dependent increase in cellular P-glycoprotein activity. Both verapamil and nifedipine, structurally unrelated P-glycoprotein inhibitors, increased markedly the sensitivity of CHO fibroblasts to killing by C12-Im; the increase was greater in confluent than in growing cells. Also, verapamil inhibitable 3H-daunomycin efflux was more efficient from confluent than from subconfluent cells. The MDR cell line CH(R)C5 differed from all cell lines previously examined in that it did not show a growth-dependent decrease in C12-Im sensitivity, and sensitivity was not increased by verapamil or nifedipine. We suggest that a growth-dependent increase in MDR activity is a general property of cultured cells, except for those specifically overexpressing P-glycoprotein.