Dual role of alpha-acetolactate decarboxylase in Lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis.

The alpha-acetolactate decarboxylase gene aldB is clustered with the genes for the branched-chain amino acids (BCAA) in Lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis. It can be transcribed with BCAA genes under isoleucine regulation or independently of BCAA synthesis under the control of its own promoter. The product of aldB is responsible for leucine sensibility under valine starvation. In the presence of more than 10 microM leucine, the alpha-acetolactate produced by the biosynthetic acetohydroxy acid synthase IlvBN is transformed to acetoin by AldB and, consequently, is not available for valine synthesis. AldB is also involved in acetoin formation in the 2,3-butanediol pathway, initiated by the catabolic acetolactate synthase, AlsS. The differences in the genetic organization, the expression, and the kinetics parameters of these enzymes between L. lactis and Klebsiella terrigena, Bacillus subtilis, or Leuconostoc oenos suggest that this pathway plays a different role in the metabolism in these bacteria. Thus, the alpha-acetolactate decarboxylase from L. lactis plays a dual role in the cell: (i) as key regulator of valine and leucine biosynthesis, by controlling the acetolactate flux by a shift to catabolism; and (ii) as an enzyme catalyzing the second step of the 2,3-butanediol pathway.     

Glucose/citrate cometabolism in Lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis biovar diacetylactis with impaired alpha-acetolactate decarboxylase

The pyruvate metabolism of a Lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis biovar diacetylactis mutant deficient in alpha-acetolactate decarboxylase and its wild-type strain was studied during batch cultivations. A chemically defined medium was used containing glucose as carbon- and energy-source. The alpha-acetolactate decarboxylase deficiency had no effect on the specific growth rate. Addition of citrate was found to increase the specific growth rate of both strains under aerobic and anaerobic conditions. The product formation was monitored throughout the cultivations. The carbon- and redox-balances were within the accuracy of the experimental data. When citrate was added, alpha-acetolactate, diacetyl, and acetoin were formed, and aeration was shown to have a positive effect on the formation of these metabolites. By omitting lipoic acid (required for a functional pyruvate dehydrogenase complex) from the growth medium, a similar stimulatory effect on alpha-acetolactate, diacetyl, and acetoin formation was observed under aerobic conditions. The strain with impaired alpha-acetolactate decarboxylase activity accumulated alpha-acetolactate which resulted in an increased diacetyl formation compared to the wild-type strain, under aerobic and anaerobic conditions.     

A general method for selection of alpha-acetolactate decarboxylase-deficient Lactococcus lactis mutants to improve diacetyl formation

The enzyme acetolactate decarboxylase (Ald) plays a key role in the regulation of the alpha-acetolactate pool in both pyruvate catabolism and the biosynthesis of the branched-chain amino acids, isoleucine, leucine, and valine (ILV). This dual role of Ald, due to allosteric activation by leucine, was used as a strategy for the isolation of Ald-deficient mutants of Lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis biovar diacetylactis. Such mutants can be selected as leucine-resistant mutants in ILV- or IV-prototrophic strains. Most dairy lactococcus strains are auxotrophic for the three amino acids. Therefore, the plasmid pMC004 containing the ilv genes (encoding the enzymes involved in the biosynthesis of IV) of L. lactis NCDO2118 was constructed. Introduction of pMC004 into ILV-auxotrophic dairy strains resulted in an isoleucine-prototrophic phenotype. By plating the strains on a chemically defined medium supplemented with leucine but not valine and isoleucine, spontaneous leucine-resistant mutants were obtained. These mutants were screened by Western blotting with Ald-specific antibodies for the presence of Ald. Selected mutants lacking Ald were subsequently cured of pMC004. Except for a defect in the expression of Ald, the resulting strain, MC010, was identical to the wild-type strain, as shown by Southern blotting and DNA fingerprinting. The mutation resulting in the lack of Ald in MC010 occurred spontaneously, and the strain does not contain foreign DNA; thus, it can be regarded as food grade. Nevertheless, its application in dairy products depends on the regulation of genetically modified organisms. These results establish a strategy to select spontaneous Ald-deficient mutants from transformable L. lactis strains.     

Cloning and expression of an alpha-acetolactate decarboxylase gene from Streptococcus lactis subsp. diacetylactis in Escherichia coli

The Streptococcus lactis gene coding for alpha-acetolactate decarboxylase (ADC) was cloned in Escherichia coli. Subsequent subcloning in E. coli showed that the ADC gene was located within a 1.3-kilobase DNA fragment. The ADC gene was controlled by its own promoter. Gas chromatography showed that S. lactis and the transformed E. coli strains produced the two optical isomers of acetoin in different ratios.     

Metabolic engineering of Lactococcus lactis: influence of the overproduction of alpha-acetolactate synthase in strains deficient in lactate dehydrogenase as a function of culture conditions.

The als gene for alpha-acetolactate synthase of Lactococcus lactis MG1363 was cloned on a multicopy plasmid under the control of the inducible L. lactis lacA promoter. More than a hundredfold overproduction of alpha-acetolactate synthase was obtained in L. lactis under inducing conditions as compared with that of the host strain, which contained a single chromosomal copy of the als gene. The effect of alpha-acetolactate synthase overproduction on the formation of end products in various L. lactis strains was studied under different fermentation conditions. Under aerobic conditions and with an initial pH of 6.0, overexpression of the als gene resulted in significant acetoin production that amounted to more than one-third of the pyruvate converted. However, the effect of the alpha-acetolactate synthase overproduction was even more pronounced in the lactate dehydrogenase-deficient strain L. lactis NZ2700. Anaerobic cultivation of this strain resulted in a doubling of the butanediol formation of up to 40% of the converted pyruvate. When cultivated aerobically at an initial pH of 6.8, overexpression of the als gene in L. lactis NZ2700 resulted in the conversion of more than 60% of the pyruvate into acetoin, while no butanediol was formed. Moreover, at an initial pH of 6.0, similar amounts of acetoin were obtained, but in addition approximately 20% of the pyruvate was converted into butanediol. These metabolic engineering studies indicate that more than 80% of the lactose can be converted via the activity of the overproduced alpha-acetolactate synthase in L. lactis.     

Imbalance of leucine flux in Lactococcus lactis and its use for the isolation of diacetyl-overproducing strains.

Diacetyl is a by-product of pyruvate metabolism in Lactococcus lactis, where pyruvate is first converted to alpha-acetolactate, which is slowly decarboxylated to diacetyl in the presence of oxygen. L. lactis usually converts alpha-acetolactate to acetoin enzymatically, by alpha-acetolactate decarboxylase encoded by the aldB gene. We took advantage of the fact that this enzyme also has a central role in the regulation of branched-chain amino acids, to select spontaneous aldB mutants in an unbalanced concentration of leucine versus those of valine and isoleucine in the medium. Industrial dairy strains of L. lactis subsp. lactis biovar diacetylactis containing point mutations and deletions of aldB were isolated and characterized. Their growth in milk was not affected, but they rapidly accumulated a large amount of alpha-acetolactate instead of acetoin from citrate in milk. Under aerated condition, strains devoid of AldB produced about 10 times more diacetyl than did the parental strains.     

Cloning and expression of an alpha-acetolactate decarboxylase gene from Streptococcus lactis subsp. diacetylactis in Escherichia coli.

The Streptococcus lactis gene coding for alpha-acetolactate decarboxylase (ADC) was cloned in Escherichia coli. Subsequent subcloning in E. coli showed that the ADC gene was located within a 1.3-kilobase DNA fragment. The ADC gene was controlled by its own promoter. Gas chromatography showed that S. lactis and the transformed E. coli strains produced the two optical isomers of acetoin in different ratios.     

An improved method for screening alpha-acetolactate producing mutants.

Alpha-Acetolactate-deficient Lactococcus lactis ssp. lactis biovar. diacelylactis are utilised in several industrial processes for producing diacetyl and alpha-acetolactate. They can be selected by screening after random mutagenesis. We improved a previously described screening method [Monnet, C., Schmitt, P., Diviès, C., 1997. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 63, 793-795], which makes it possible to screen up to 1000 colonies per agar plate, whereas the previous method allowed to screen only 60 colonies per agar plate. The new screening method facilitates selection of alpha-acetolactate-deficient mutants.     

Isolation, characterization, and physiological role of the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex and alpha-acetolactate synthase of Lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis bv. diacetylactis.

The pyruvate dehydrogenase complex of Lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis bv. diacetylactis has a specific activity of 6.6 U/mg and a Km of 1 mM for pyruvate. The specific activities of E2 and E3 in the complex are 30 and 0.36 U/mg, respectively. The complex is very sensitive to NADH inhibition and consists of four subunits: E1 alpha (44 kDa), E1 beta (35 kDa), E2 (73 kDa), and E3 (60 kDa). The L. lactis alpha-acetolactate synthase has a specific activity of 103 U/mg and a Km of 50 mM for pyruvate. Thiamine pyrophosphate (Km = 3.2 microM) and divalent cations are essential for activity. The native enzyme measures 172 kDa and consists of 62-kDa monomers. The role of both enzymes in product formation is discussed in view of NADH inhibition and competition for pyruvate.     

Genetic manipulation of the pathway for diacetyl metabolism in Lactococcus lactis.

Diacetyl is an important food flavor compound produced by certain strains of citrate-metabolizing lactic acid bacteria. Citrate is converted to pyruvate, from which diacetyl is produced via intermediate alpha-acetolactate. This paper reports the cloning and analysis of the gene (aldB) encoding alpha-acetolactate decarboxylase from Lactococcus lactis MG1363. Deletion of the MG1363 chromosomal aldB gene was achieved by double crossover homologous recombination. The mutant strain was found to produce diacetyl; alpha-acetolactate decarboxylase activity was eliminated. Overexpression of the cloned ilvBN genes (encoding an alpha-acetolactate synthase) in the aldB deletion strain produced even higher levels of alpha-acetolactate, acetoin, and diacetyl.     

Lactococcus lactis as a cell factory for high-level diacetyl production

We report the engineering of Lactococcus lactis for the efficient conversion of sugar into diacetyl by combining NADH-oxidase overproduction and alpha-acetolactate decarboxylase inactivation. Eighty percent of the carbon flux was found to be rerouted via alpha-acetolactate to the production of diacetyl by preloading the cells with NADH-oxidase before their use as a cell factory.     

Improved performances and control of beer fermentation using encapsulated alpha-acetolactate decarboxylase and modeling

The use of the enzyme alpha-acetolactate decarboxylase allows the acceleration of beer fermentation/maturation because it shunts diacetyl formation, whose elimination is the rate-limiting step of the process. To obtain a cost reduction by using this exogenous enzyme, we propose a new process involving recoverable encapsulated alpha-acetolactate decarboxylase. The performance of traditional and new processes was investigated by a modeling approach. A simple model, focused on alpha-acetolactate and diacetyl profiles during beer fermentation, was set up. The simulated profiles are consistent with literature data. This study shows also that encapsulated alpha-acetolactate decarboxylase allows the acceleration of beer fermentation as efficiently as free alpha-acetolactate decarboxylase. The advantage of immobilized alpha-acetolactate decarboxylase versus free enzyme is that it is recoverable and reusable, which means a process cost reduction.     

Redirection of pyruvate catabolism in Lactococcus lactis by selection of mutants with additional growth requirements

Based on requirements for acetate or lipoic acid for aerobic (but not anaerobic) growth, Lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis mutants with impaired pyruvate catabolism were isolated following classical mutagenesis. Strains with defects in one or two of the enzymes, pyruvate formate-lyase (PFL), lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) and the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex (PDHC) were obtained. Growth and product formation of these strains were characterized. A PFL-defective strain (requiring acetate for anaerobic growth) displayed a two-fold increase in specific lactate production compared with the corresponding wild-type strain when grown anaerobically. LDH defective strains directed 91-96% of the pyruvate towards alpha-acetolactate, acetoin and diacetyl production when grown aerobically in the presence of acetate and absence of lipoic acid (a similar characteristic was observed in an LDH and PDHC defective strain in the presence of both acetate and lipoic acid) and more than 65% towards formate, acetate and ethanol production under anaerobic conditions. Another strain with defective PFL and LDH was strictly aerobic. However, a variant with strongly enhanced diacetyl reductase activities (NADH/NAD+ dependent diacetyl reductase, acetoin reductase and butanediol dehydrogenase activities) was selected from this strain under anaerobic conditions by supplementing the medium with acetoin. This strain is strictly aerobic, unless supplied with acetoin.     

Regulation of branched-chain amino acid biosynthesis by alpha-acetolactate decarboxylase in Streptococcus thermophilus

AIMS: To demonstrate the presence of an active alpha-acetolactate decarboxylase in Streptococcus thermophilus and to investigate its physiological function. METHODS AND RESULTS: Streptococcus thermophilus CNRZ385 contains a gene encoding an alpha-acetolactate decarboxylase. Comparison of the production of alpha-acetolactate and its decarboxylation products, by the parent strain and an alpha-acetolactate decarboxylase-deficient mutant, demonstrated the presence of a control of the pool of alpha-acetolactate by valine, leucine and isoleucine. This control occurs via an allosteric activation of the alpha-acetolactate decarboxylase. Cell-free extracts of S. thermophilus were not able to decarboxylate the isoleucine precursor alpha-acetohydroxybutyrate. CONCLUSIONS: These results strongly suggest that one of the physiological functions of the alpha-acetolactate decarboxylase in S. thermophilus is to regulate leucine and valine biosynthesis by diverting the flux of alpha-acetolactate towards acetoin when the branched-chain amino acids are present at a high concentration. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: Regulation of branched-chain amino acid biosynthesis by alpha-acetolactate decarboxylase may occur in several other micro-organisms and explain some of their growth properties.     

Nucleotide sequence and expression of the Enterobacter aerogenes alpha-acetolactate decarboxylase gene in brewer's yeast

The nucleotide sequence of a 1.4-kilobase DNA fragment containing the alpha-acetolactate decarboxylase gene of Enterobacter aerogenes was determined. The sequence contains an entire protein-coding region of 780 nucleotides which encodes an alpha-acetolactate decarboxylase of 260 amino acids. The DNA sequence coding for alpha-acetolactate decarboxylase was placed under the control of the alcohol dehydrogenase I promoter of the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae in a plasmid capable of autonomous replication in both S. cerevisiae and Escherichia coli. Brewer's yeast cells transformed by this plasmid showed alpha-acetolactate decarboxylase activity and were used in laboratory-scale fermentation experiments. These experiments revealed that the diacetyl concentration in wort fermented by the plasmid-containing yeast strain was significantly lower than that in wort fermented by the parental strain. These results indicated that the alpha-acetolactate decarboxylase activity produced by brewer's yeast cells degraded alpha-acetolactate and that this degradation caused a decrease in diacetyl production.     

Isolation, purification and properties of acetolactate synthase from cultured Lactococcus lactis

Acetolactate synthase catalyzing the synthesis of alpha-acetolactate was isolated from lactic acid bacteria Lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis biovar. diacetylactis 4 and purified. Acetolactate synthase was shown to be an allosteric enzyme with low affinity for the substrate: the Km for pyruvate was 70 mM. The curve relating the dependence of enzyme activity on pyruvate concentration had a sigmoid shape. The enzyme activity persisted for 24 h in the presence of stabilizers, pyruvate, and thiamine pyrophosphate. Acetolactate synthase had the pH optimums of 5.8 and 6.5-7.0 in acetate and phosphate buffers, respectively. The temperature optimum for this enzyme was 38-40 degrees C at pH 6.5. The molecular weight of acetolactate synthase was 150 kDa. In Polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis in the presence of sodium dodecyl sulfate showed that the enzyme consisted of three identical subunits with a molecular weight of 55 kDa.     

Nucleotide sequence and expression of the Enterobacter aerogenes alpha-acetolactate decarboxylase gene in brewer's yeast.

The nucleotide sequence of a 1.4-kilobase DNA fragment containing the alpha-acetolactate decarboxylase gene of Enterobacter aerogenes was determined. The sequence contains an entire protein-coding region of 780 nucleotides which encodes an alpha-acetolactate decarboxylase of 260 amino acids. The DNA sequence coding for alpha-acetolactate decarboxylase was placed under the control of the alcohol dehydrogenase I promoter of the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae in a plasmid capable of autonomous replication in both S. cerevisiae and Escherichia coli. Brewer's yeast cells transformed by this plasmid showed alpha-acetolactate decarboxylase activity and were used in laboratory-scale fermentation experiments. These experiments revealed that the diacetyl concentration in wort fermented by the plasmid-containing yeast strain was significantly lower than that in wort fermented by the parental strain. These results indicated that the alpha-acetolactate decarboxylase activity produced by brewer's yeast cells degraded alpha-acetolactate and that this degradation caused a decrease in diacetyl production.     

A membrane protein is required for bacteriophage c2 infection of Lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis C2.

Phage-resistant mutants, isolated from cultures of Lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis C2 infected with phage c2, did not form plaques but bound phage normally. The mutants were sensitive to another phage, sk1, although the number of plaques was reduced approximately 56% and the plaques were four times smaller. Binding to phage sk1 was reduced about 10%. Another group of phage-resistant mutants, isolated from cultures infected with phage sk1, bound normally to both phages c2 and sk1 but did not form plaques with either phage. Carbohydrate analyses by gas chromatography of the cell walls showed no significant differences in saccharide compositions between the wild-type and phage-resistant cells. However, a difference was observed in the interactions of the phage with the cytoplasmic membranes. Membranes from the wild-type cells, but not mutant cells, inactivated phage c2. Phage sk1 was not inactivated by membrane from either strain. Treatment of wild-type membranes with proteinase K eliminated the ability of the membrane to inactivate the phage, whereas treatment with mutanolysin had no effect. On the basis of this ability to inactivate the phage, a membrane protein was partially purified by gel filtration and ion-exchange chromatography. Under nondenaturing conditions, the phage-inactivating protein has an apparent Mr of approximately 350,000. The protein has an apparent subunit size of 32 kDa, which suggests that it normally exists as a multimer with 10 to 12 subunits or in association with other membrane components. It is proposed that this protein is required for phage c2 infection.