Free—living fathead minnows rapidly learn to recognize pike as predators

Individuals from a natural population of approximately 20 000 fathead minnows from a pike–free pond did not respond with appropriate anti–predator behaviour upon encountering pike odour in laboratory tests. However, 14 days after 10 pike were stocked into the pond, minnows had acquired recognition of pike odour. Laboratory studies have indicated several possible mechanisms for acquiring predator recognition in fathead minnows. This study indicates that these, or similar processes, can produce major changes in predator recognition in the wild.     

The role of experience and chemical alarm signalling in predator recognition by fathead minnows, Pimephales promelas

Young-of-the-year, predator-naive fathead minnows, Pimephales promelas , from a pikesympatric population did not respond to chemical stimuli from northern pike, Esox Indus , while wild-caught fish of the same age and size did. These results suggest that chemical predator recognition is a result of previous experience and not genetic factors, Wild young-of-the-year minnows responded to pike odour with a response intensity that was similar to that of older fish, demonstrating that the ability to recognize predators is learned within the first year. The intensity of response of wild minnows which had been maintained in a predator free environment for 1 year was similar to that of recently caught minnows of the same age, suggesting that reinforcement was not required for predator recognition to be retained. Naive minnows that were exposed simultaneously to chemical stimuli from pike (a neutral stimulus) and minnow alarm substance exhibited a fright response upon subsequent exposure to the pike stimulus alone. Predator-naive minnows exposed simultaneously to chemical stimuli from pike and glass-distilled water did not exhibit a fright response to the pike stimulus alone. These results demonstrate that fathead minnows can acquire predator recognition through releaserinduced recognition learning, thus confirming a known mechanism through which alarm substance may benefit the receivers of an alarm signal.     

Fathead minnows avoid conspedfic and heterospedfic alarm pheromones in the faeces of northern pike

Groups of fathead minnows Pimephales promelas were tested to determine if they avoided areas of a test tank labelled with the faeces of a predator (northern pike, Esox lucius ) which had recently been fed minnows, brook sticklebacks Culaea inconstans , or swordtails Xiphophorus helleri. Minnows exhibited a fright reaction upon presentation of sponges labelled with faeces, when the pike had consumed minnows or sticklebacks, but not swordtails (which lack alarm pheromones). The fright reaction was characterized by increased shoal cohesiveness and increased dashing and freezing behaviour. Minnows avoided the area of the tank containing the faeces from pike on diets of minnows or sticklebacks, but not from pike fed a diet of swordtails. These data demonstrate that: (1) minnows actively avoid the faeces of pike fed minnows or brook sticklebacks, and (2) minnows exhibit a fright reaction to the faeces of a pike fed brook sticklebacks.     

The effects of ultraviolet radiation on a freshwater prey fish: physiological stress response,club cell investment,and alarm cue production

Recent anthropogenic activities have caused deleterious effects to the stratospheric ozone layer, resulting in a global increase in the level of ultraviolet radiation (UVR). Understanding the way that organisms respond to such stressors is key to predicting the effects of anthropogenic activities on aquatic ecosystems and the species that inhabit them. The epidermal layer of the skin of fishes is not keratinized and acts as the primary interface between the fish and its environment. The skin of many species of fishes contains large epidermal club cells (ECCs) that are known to release chemicals (alarm cues) serving to warn other fishes of danger. However, the alarm role of the cells is likely secondary to their role in the immune system. Recent research suggests that ECCs in the epidermis may play a role in protecting the fish from damage caused by UVR. In the present study, we examined the effects of in vivo exposure to UVR on fathead minnows (Pimephales promelas), specifically investigating ECC investment, physiological stress responses, and alarm cue production. We found that fish exposed to UVR showed an increase in cortisol levels and a substantive decrease in ECC investment compared to non‐exposed controls. Unexpectedly, our subsequent analysis of the behavioural response of fish to alarm cues revealed no difference in the potency of the cues prepared from the skin of UV‐exposed or non‐exposed minnows. Our results indicate that, although nonlethal, UVR exposure may lead to secondary mortality by altering the fish immune system, although this same exposure may have little influence on chemically‐mediated predator–prey interactions. © 2012 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2012, 105 , 832–841.     

Epidermal club cells do not protect fathead minnows against trematode cercariae: a test of the anti‐parasite hypothesis

Epidermal club cells of fishes in the superorder ostariophysi have puzzled evolutionary biologists because they were historically linked to chemical alarm signalling and relied on group selectionist explanations. Alternative hypotheses to explain the existence of these cells include the possibility of an anti‐pathogenic or anti‐parasitic function. If this is so, individual fish should invest in increased numbers of club cells after exposure to parasites, and club cells should contain components that reduce the infectivity of skin‐penetrating larvae. Infectivity of cercariae of the trematode Ornithodiplostomum sp. was significantly reduced when exposed to the skin extract of fathead minnows (an ostariophysan), but also to skin extract of mollies (a non‐ostariophysan that lacks club cells), respectively, compared to controls. Moreover, club cell density was not affected by exposure to cercariae. Taken together, these results are inconsistent with an anti‐parasite function for these cells and instead suggest a generic role in response to injury. © 2009 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2009, 98 , 884–890.     

Chemical alarm signals increase the survival time of fathead minnows (Pimephales promelas) during encounters with northern pike (Esox Lucius)

We tested the hypothesis that exposure to a conspecific alarmpheromone improves survival of fathead minnows (Pimephales promelas)during staged encounters with an unfamiliar predator (northernpike: Esox luaus). Minnows exposed to the alarm pheromone survived39. 5% longer than controls. This difference in survival timeappeared to result not from direct inhibition of the pike butrather from some aspect of the minnows' antipredator behavior.Minnows exhibited significant increases in both shoaling andshelter use after exposure to the alarm pheromone. For controlminnows, the degree of shoaling was positively correlated withsurvival time, suggesting that increased shoaling is an effectiveantipredator response. This study provides the first directexperimental evidence that chemical alarm signals in fishesimprove survival of receivers.     

Fathead minnows (Pimephales promelas) learn to recognize chemical stimuli from high-risk habitats by the presence of alarm substance

We exposed fathead minnows (Pimephales promelas) to water fromone of two distinct habitat types (an open water site or a vegetatedcover site in the same stream) that we mixed with either alarmsubstance or a distilled water control. Upon subsequent exposuresto the habitat waters alone, minnows showed a fright responseto the habitat water that they received in conjunction withalarm substance but not to the other habitat water. These resultsindicate that minnows can learn to recognize high-risk habitatsbased on the association of habitat specific chemical cues withalarm substance. The ability to recognize these habitats couldpotentially lower the minnows' risk of predation. These resultsprovide evidence of a long-term benefit to receivers of a chemicalalarm signal.     

The role of dendritic cells in the innate immune system

Dendritic cells (DCs) are bone-marrow-derived leucocytes that are specialised antigen-presenting cells capable of stimulating a primary T-lymphocyte response to specific antigen. In this chapter we discuss the role DCs play in the innate response acting as a critical link with the adaptive response and the influence of the innate response on dendritic cells.     

Understanding the toad code: Behavioural responses of cane toad (Chaunus marinus) larvae and metamorphs to chemical cues

Abstract Larvae of many anuran taxa display strong behavioural responses to chemical cues, including alarm signals from injured conspecific tadpoles. We exposed tadpoles and metamorphs from an Australian population of the invasive cane toad (Chaunus[Bufo] marinus) to a range of chemical stimuli and quantified their responses both in the laboratory and in the field. Filtered fluids containing scent cues from crushed conspecifics elicited strong avoidance from tadpoles, whereas other cues (e.g. scent of food, of native‐range fish or urodele predators, and thermal stimuli) did not. Apparent aggregation of tadpoles in response to scent cues proved to be an artifact of tank design, and was an indirect consequence of avoidance of those cues. Field trials confirmed that free‐ranging toad tadpoles and metamorphs avoided chemical cues from crushed conspecifics, suggesting that the chemicals inducing this response might provide an opportunity to develop targeted control methods for this invasive species.     

Microbiota-derived acetate enables the metabolic fitness of the brain innate immune system during health and disease

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Immunological memory within the innate immune system

Immune memory has traditionally been the domain of the adaptive immune system, present only in antigen‐specific T and B cells. The purpose of this review is to summarize the evidence for immunological memory in lower organisms (which are not thought to possess adaptive immunity) and within specific cell subsets of the innate immune system. A special focus will be given to recent findings in both mouse and humans for specificity and memory in natural killer (NK) cells, which have resided under the umbrella of innate immunity for decades. The surprising longevity and enhanced responses of previously primed NK cells will be discussed in the context of several immunization settings.     

The innate immune system in the intestine

The innate immune system provides the first line of host defense against invading pathogens. Innate immune responses are initiated by germline-encoded PRR, which recognize specific structures expressed by microorganisms. TLR are a family of PRR which sense a wide range of microorganisms, including bacteria, fungi, protozoa and viruses. TLR are also expressed in the intestine and are critical for intestinal homeostasis. Recently, cytoplasmic PRR, such as NLR and RLR, have been shown to detect pathogens that have invaded the cytosol. One of the NLR, NOD2, is thought to be involved in the pathogenesis of Crohn's disease. This review focuses on the innate immune responses triggered by PRR in the intestine.     

Peptidoglycan recognition proteins of the innate immune system

Peptidoglycan (PGN) is the major component of bacterial cell walls and one of the main microbial products recognized by the innate immune system. PGN recognition is mediated by several families of pattern recognition molecules, including Toll-like receptors, nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain-containing proteins, and peptidoglycan recognition proteins (PGRPs). However, only the interaction of PGN with PGRPs, which are highly conserved from insects to mammals, has so far been characterized at the molecular level. Here, we describe recent structural studies of PGRPs that reveal the basis for PGN recognition and provide insights into the signal transduction and antibacterial activities of these innate immune proteins.     

Recognition of herpesviruses by the innate immune system

Advances in innate immunity over the past decade have revealed distinct classes of pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) that detect pathogens at the cell surface and in intracellular compartments. This has shed light on how herpesviruses, which are large disease-causing DNA viruses that replicate in the nucleus, are initially recognized during cellular infection. Surprisingly, this involves multiple PRRs both on the cell surface and within endosomes and the cytosol. In this article we describe recent advances in our understanding of innate detection of herpesviruses, how this innate detection translates into anti-herpesvirus host defence, and how the viruses seek to evade this innate detection to establish persistent infections.     

线虫与果蝇先天免疫系统的比较

一般认为无脊椎动物没有获得性免疫系统,先天免疫系统就成了无脊椎动物唯一的防御手段。由于不同物种的生活环境不同,它们所面临的病原体也不同,这就产生了不同物种先天免疫的特异性。主要就线虫和果蝇这2种模式生物在先天免疫系统方面的差异作一比较。     

A re-evaluation of the effect of shoalmate familiarity on the proliferation of alarm substance cells in ostariophysan fishes

A re-examination of data from Wisenden & Smith Journal of Fish Biology 50 , 799–808) suggests that fathead minnows Pimephales promelas adjust investment into epidermal alarm substance cells (ASC) facultatively based upon the level of perceived risk. When placed into a container with non-familiar shoalmates (relatively high risk) ASC production increased. This allows these individuals to attract a secondary predator better. When placed into a container with familiar shoalmates (relatively low risk) ASC production decreased. This may reflect increased effectiveness of a group antipredator response by familiar individuals, and/or the cost to inclusive fitness of attracting additional predators to the vicinity of their kin.     

Siderocalins: siderophore-binding proteins of the innate immune system

Recent studies have revealed that the mammalian immune system directly interferes with siderophore-mediated iron acquisition through siderophore-binding proteins and that the association of certain siderophores, or siderophore modifications, with virulence is a direct response of pathogens to evade these defenses.     

Collectins: players of the innate immune system.

Collectins are a family of collagenous calcium-dependent defense lectins in animals. Their polypeptide chains consist of four regions: a cysteine-rich N-terminal domain, a collagen-like region, an alpha-helical coiled-coil neck domain and a C-terminal lectin or carbohydrate-recognition domain. These polypeptide chains form trimers that may assemble into larger oligomers. The best studied family members are the mannan-binding lectin, which is secreted into the blood by the liver, and the surfactant proteins A and D, which are secreted into the pulmonary alveolar and airway lining fluid. The collectins represent an important group of pattern recognition molecules, which bind to oligosaccharide structures and/or lipid moities on the surface of microorganisms. They bind preferentially to monosaccharide units of the mannose type, which present two vicinal hydroxyl groups in an equatorial position. High-affinity interactions between collectins and microorganisms depend, on the one hand, on the high density of the carbohydrate ligands on the microbial surface, and on the other, on the degree of oligomerization of the collectin. Apart from binding to microorganisms, the collectins can interact with receptors on host cells. Binding of collectins to microorganisms may facilitate microbial clearance through aggregation, complement activation, opsonization and activation of phagocytosis, and inhibition of microbial growth. In addition, the collectins can modulate inflammatory and allergic responses, affect apoptotic cell clearance and modulate the adaptive immune system.     

The effect of physical condition and shoalmate familiarity on proliferation of alarm substance cells in the epidermis of fathead minnows

Ostariophysan fishes have specialized epidermal alarm substance cells (ASCs). In this study, metabolic cost to the production and maintenance of these cells was demonstrated. Fathead minnows Pimephales promelas were maintained on high or low food rations and, to test for the effect of social context on the number of ASCs, they were held with either zero or two shoalmates. Shoalmates were familiar (from the focal fish's shoal), or unfamiliar (from a shoal separated by 1 km from the focal fish's shoal). After 16 days, epidermal thickness, number of mucus cells and number of ASCs were all significantly greater for minnows on the high ration than for those on the low ration. Within the high ration group, physical condition was positively correlated with epidermal thickness and ASC number. The shoalmate treatment had no measurable effect on the epidermis. It was concluded that food availability determines investment into ASCs, inferring a trade-off between the cost of ASCs and the fitness benefits they accrue.