Coniferous round wood imports from Russia and Baltic countries to Belgium. A pathway analysis for assessing risks of exotic pest insect introductions

Understanding entry pathways resulting from global trade is critical to assess the risks of introduction of invasive alien species (IAS). From 1996 onward, the import of timber from Russia and the Baltic States to Belgium dramatically increased, with more than one million cubic metres of coniferous round wood imported until 2004. Such a high volume could have served as entry pathway for exotic bark beetles from the East that have the potential to become forest insect pests upon establishment. We collected and cross-checked different data sources (FAOSTAT, Eurostat, National Bank of Belgium, Belgian Customs, the Belgian sawmills industry) regarding the import of timber in an attempt to trace back the spatial and temporal patterns of this trade, and to assess the expected validity of a pest risk analysis based on those data. We found that the timber trade between 1996 and 2004 is particularly dynamic in space and time, and may have allowed several opportunities for exotic bark-beetle introductions. In addition, the patterns of trade change so quickly from year to year that the existing data sources are essentially not adequate for IAS risk assessment in a near real-time fashion. The data are either comprehensive, but then aggregated at a too coarse level (space, time, or category) to be of real use in risk assessment, or available with adequate levels of details, in which case they are mostly partial or incomplete. Better accessibility to data and data exchanges between organizations in charge of trade data collection and plant protection would help better targeting of phytosanitary controls.     

我国进境植物检疫性有害生物检疫鉴定标准浅析

进境检疫性有害生物的检疫鉴定标准是检疫鉴定工作的重要参考依据,目前我国进境植物检疫性有害生物共计446种(属),并发布了479项相关检疫鉴定标准,覆盖了我国进境植物检疫性有害生物名录中的423种(属)有害生物。为了解我国检疫鉴定标准的制定发展现状、发现其中问题并及时改进,本文对现有检疫鉴定标准进行统计分析,并对其进行特点总结和问题剖析。目前我国检疫鉴定标准制定与修订工作快速发展,呈现不断更新、多方合作、方法多样化、综合化等特点,但我国检疫鉴定标准在完整性、现势性、规范性、创新性、体系规划性等方面仍存在一定的问题。因此,系统完善检疫鉴定标准,综合发展先进鉴定技术,加快建设标准化体系,有助于植物检疫工作的长足发展,对维护我国经济贸易及生物安全具有重要意义。     

Effectiveness of the International Phytosanitary Standard ISPM No. 15 on Reducing Wood Borer Infestation Rates in Wood Packaging Material Entering the United States

Numerous bark- and wood-infesting insects have been introduced to new countries by international trade where some have caused severe environmental and economic damage. Wood packaging material (WPM), such as pallets, is one of the high risk pathways for the introduction of wood pests. International recognition of this risk resulted in adoption of International Standards for Phytosanitary Measures No. 15 (ISPM15) in 2002, which provides treatment standards for WPM used in international trade. ISPM15 was originally developed by members of the International Plant Protection Convention to “practically eliminate” the risk of international transport of most bark and wood pests via WPM. The United States (US) implemented ISPM15 in three phases during 2005–2006. We compared pest interception rates of WPM inspected at US ports before and after US implementation of ISPM15 using the US Department of Agriculture AQIM (Agriculture Quarantine Inspection Monitoring) database. Analyses of records from 2003–2009 indicated that WPM infestation rates declined 36–52% following ISPM15 implementation, with results varying in statistical significance depending on the selected starting parameters. Power analyses of the AQIM data indicated there was at least a 95% chance of detecting a statistically significant reduction in infestation rates if they dropped by 90% post-ISPM15, but the probability fell as the impact of ISPM15 lessened. We discuss several factors that could have reduced the apparent impact of ISPM15 on lowering WPM infestation levels, and suggest ways that ISPM15 could be improved. The paucity of international interception data impeded our ability to conduct more thorough analyses of the impact of ISPM15, and demonstrates the need for well-planned sampling programs before and after implementation of major phytosanitary policies so that their effectiveness can be assessed. We also present summary data for bark- and wood-boring insects intercepted on WPM at US ports during 1984–2008.     

印度尼西亚输华植物产品截获的有害生物情况分析

【目的】印度尼西亚与我国有着多元素的农产品贸易往来,通过统计印度尼西亚输华植物及植物产品所携带的有害生物,分析其对我国农产品进出口的影响,能为应对印度尼西亚技术性贸易措施提供思路,并为我国农产品企业"走出去"提供参考。【方法】经动植物检验检疫信息资源共享服务平台查询,统计印度尼西亚输华植物及植物产品所携带的有害生物类别、截获途径及截获地区。【结果】我国在印度尼西亚输华植物及植物产品中检出有害生物共计2512种96958批,鉴定至种且检出超过1000批次的有害生物共计14种,检疫性有害生物共计72种5286批。昆虫类有害生物占比达78.5%,检疫性昆虫达65.2%。【结论】在首要做好木材类有害生物检疫的同时,也需警惕一些非检疫性的仓储害虫,保持并加强南方各省份港口的有害生物查验力度,加强印度尼西亚输华货物的检疫。     

A review of global instruments to combat invasive alien species in forestry

Although impacts of biological invasions may be local, at least at first, the causes of introduction are mostly international. Through trade and transport pathways, countries both send and receive non-native species. There are numerous international and regional instruments, binding and nonbinding, which have been developed to deal with the problem of the movement of alien invasive species, however there are gaps in the current international framework. Global goals in the management of forestry-related threats from invasive alien species should include making best use of existing regulatory frameworks, investing more into global research initiatives, and targeting existing tools and resources more effectively. Given the lack of resources for many developing countries to undertake research, conduct risk assessments and implement quarantine measures, there is a need for regional and global support for countries that lack sufficient resources to implement effective phytosanitary systems.     

Factors affecting ionizing radiation phytosanitary treatments, and implications for research and generic treatments

Phytosanitary irradiation (PI) treatments are promising measures to overcome quarantine barriers to trade and are currently used in several countries. Although PI has advantages compared with other treatments one disadvantage bedevils research, approval, and application: organisms may remain alive after importation. Although this does not preclude their use as a phytosanitary treatment, it does leave the treatment without an independent verification of efficacy and places a greater burden for assuring quarantine security on the research supporting the treatment. This article analyses several factors that have been hypothesized to affect PI efficacy: low oxygen, pest stage, host, dose rate, and temperature. Of these factors, the first is known to affect efficacy, whereas host and dose rate probably need more research. The International Plant Protection Convention considered several PI treatments for its international standard on phytosanitary treatments and did not approve some at first because of perceived problems with the research or the presence of live adults after irradiation. Based on these concerns recommendations for research and dealing with the issue of live adults postirradiation are given. Generic PI treatments are suggested.     

Molecular genetic tools to infer the origin of forest plants and wood

Most forest tree species exhibit high levels of genetic diversity that can be used to trace the origin of living plants or their products such as timber and processed wood. Recent progress to isolate DNA not only from living tissue but also from wood and wood products offers new opportunities to test the declared origin of material such as seedlings for plantation establishment or timber. However, since most forest tree populations are weakly differentiated, the identification of genetic markers to differentiate among spatially isolated populations is often difficult and time consuming. Two important fields of “forensic” applications are described: Molecular tools are applied to test the declared origin of forest reproductive material used for plantation establishment and of internationally traded timber and wood products. These applications are illustrated taking examples from Germany, where mechanisms have been developed to improve the control of the trade with forest seeds and seedlings, and from the trade with wood of the important Southeast Asian tree family Dipterocarpaceae. Prospects and limitations of the use of molecular genetic methods to conclude on the origin of forest plants, wood, and wood products are discussed.     

Missing teeth: Discordances in the trade of hippo ivory between Africa and Hong Kong

As the global epicentre of wildlife trade, Hong Kong plays an important role in the preservation or demise of biodiversity, including species found continents away. If mismanaged, legal trade in threatened species can lead to unsustainable exploitation. Inaccurate and incomplete trade records from the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) undermine the regulation of this trade. We examine the trade of hippo (Hippopotamus amphibius) teeth to illustrate the extent of mismatched data between key trading nations. More than 90% of global hippo teeth trade is imported to, and re‐exported from, Hong Kong. Of that imported, over 75% originated in Tanzania or Uganda, but there are notable disparities in declared trade volumes. In most transactions, Hong Kong declares more volume imported than the volume declared exported by Uganda. Overall, Hong Kong has reported the import of 3,176 kg more hippo teeth than declared exported by Tanzania. This indicates that actual trade levels may exceed internationally agreed quotas. In total, over 14,000 kg of hippo teeth is unaccounted for between Uganda and Hong Kong, representing more than 2,700 individual hippos—2% of the global population. This gross discordance in trade data undermines regulatory measures and challenges the persistence of hippo populations in Africa.     

Checking the geographical origin of oak wood: molecular and statistical tools

New methods for better identification of timber geographical origin would constitute an important technical element in the forest industry, for phytosanitary certification procedures or in the chain of custody developed for the certification of timber from sustainably managed forests. In the case of the European white oaks, a detailed reference map of chloroplast (cp) DNA variation across the range exists, and we propose here to use the strong geographical structure, characterized by a differentiation of western vs. eastern populations, for the purpose of oak wood traceability. We first developed cpDNA markers permitting the characterization of haplotype on degraded DNA obtained from wood samples. The techniques were subsequently validated by confirming the full correspondence between genotypes obtained from living tissues (buds) and from wood collected from the same individual oak. Finally, a statistical procedure was used to test if the haplotype composition of a lot of wood samples is consistent with its presumed geographical origin. Clearly, the technique cannot permit the unambiguous identification of wood products of unknown origin but can be used to check the conformity of genetic composition of wood samples with the region of alleged origin. This could lead to major applications not only in the forest industry but also in archaeology or in palaeobotany.     

Novel strategies for assessing and managing the risks posed by invasive alien species to global crop production and biodiversity

International actions to combat the threat posed by invasive alien species (IAS) to crops and biodiversity have intensified in recent years. The formulation of 15 guiding principles on IAS by the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) stimulated the International Plant Protection Convention (IPPC) to review its role in protecting biodiversity. IPPC standards now demonstrate clearly that the risks posed by any organism that is directly or indirectly injurious to cultivated or uncultivated plants can be assessed and managed under the IPPC. Since the IPPC, unlike the CBD, constitutes an international legal instrument recognised by the World Trade Organization, greater protection from the introduction of IAS is now available. However, phytosanitary measures can only be enacted if they can be justified by risk analysis and we outline some novel strategies to improve the assessment and management of the risks posed by IAS, highlighting some of the key challenges which remain.     

Molecular database for classifying Shorea species (Dipterocarpaceae) and techniques for checking the legitimacy of timber and wood products

The extent of tropical forest has been declining, due to over-exploitation and illegal logging activities. Large quantities of unlawfully extracted timber and other wood products have been exported, mainly to developed countries. As part of the export monitoring effort, we have developed methods for extracting and analyzing DNA from wood products, such as veneers and sawn timbers made from dipterocarps, in order to identify the species from which they originated. We have also developed a chloroplast DNA database for classifying Shorea species, which are both ecologically and commercially important canopy tree species in the forests of Southeast Asia. We are able to determine the candidate species of wood samples, based on DNA sequences and anatomical data. The methods for analyzing DNA from dipterocarp wood products may have strong deterrent effects on international trade of illegitimate dipterocarp products. However, the method for analyzing DNA from wood is not perfect for all wood products and need for more improvement, especially for plywood sample. Consequently, there may be benefits for the conservation of tropical forests in Southeast Asia.     

International Trade Modelling Using Open Flow Networks: A Flow-Distance Based Analysis

This paper models and analyzes international trade flows using open flow networks (OFNs) with the approaches of flow distances, which provide a novel perspective and effective tools for the study of international trade. We discuss the establishment of OFNs of international trade from two coupled viewpoints: the viewpoint of trading commodity flow and that of money flow. Based on the novel model with flow distance approaches, meaningful insights are gained. First, by introducing the concepts of trade trophic levels and niches, countries’ roles and positions in the global supply chains (or value-added chains) can be evaluated quantitatively. We find that the distributions of trading “trophic levels” have the similar clustering pattern for different types of commodities, and summarize some regularities between money flow and commodity flow viewpoints. Second, we find that active and competitive countries trade a wide spectrum of products, while inactive and underdeveloped countries trade a limited variety of products. Besides, some abnormal countries import many types of goods, which the vast majority of countries do not need to import. Third, harmonic node centrality is proposed and we find the phenomenon of centrality stratification. All the results illustrate the usefulness of the model of OFNs with its network approaches for investigating international trade flows.     

澳大利亚输华农林产品口岸有害生物截获概况

【目的】口岸截获有害生物的数据分析可为进境农林产品检疫监管提供依据。【方法】对澳大利亚自2010至2015年输华农林产品及其入境口岸有害生物截获情况做综合分析。【结果】2010—2015年从澳大利亚输华农林产品货物中截获各类检疫性有害生物115种。其中,粮谷中以截获的杂草种类和截获频次最多,分别达到59种和31801批次;木材及木制品中以截获的蠹虫最多,达43种,共2456批次;从水果和种苗中截获病原菌6种,共79批次。另外,从入境旅客携带物中共截获检疫性有害生物9种,共66批次。【结论】澳大利亚输华农林产品可携带的检疫性有害生物自口岸传入的风险较高,相关部门应加强口岸检疫工作。     

Disparate Geography of Consumption,Production, and Environmental Impacts

International trade transfers social and environmental impacts across national borders. The consumption of forest products often takes place far away from industrial production sites, and mills procure raw material from remote forests. Finland produces about 10% of forest products that are traded internationally, with the majority of its exports destined for other European countries. Here we report and analyze data that demonstrate that international leakage, in relative terms, increased faster than the production of commodities. The international consumption of products made in Finland increased, and an increase in wood imports from Russia provided the raw material for most of the incremental production. The international consumption‐production system translated the increasing global demand for Finnish products into increased harvests in Russia, until the Russian customs duties started to increase in 2007. We argue that national and regional policies for the promotion of sustainable consumption and production must be analyzed and assessed from an international, holistic perspective.     

广西凭祥口岸首次截获有害生物台湾坡天牛Pterolophia formosana

台湾坡天牛一般随着木制品及包装制品进行远距离传播入境。目前我国台湾地区和日本有分布,在我国大陆地区尚未见该虫的发生报道。2019年5月凭祥口岸从来自越南的相思木板上截获了台湾坡天牛,为我国大陆首次截获。通过显微形态特征的观察和测量进行台湾坡天牛种类鉴定。台湾坡天牛与近似种的主要区别:其鞘翅基部具明显的黑褐色宽横带。通过入侵可能性分析,来自我国台湾地区、日本的台湾坡天牛入侵我国大陆地区的可能性很大。台湾坡天牛在我国广东、广西、福建等地区定殖和扩散风险很大。一旦传入我国,将对我国的农林安全造成巨大威胁,各口岸应对进境的木制品及包装加强检验检疫。     

Costs and benefits of freedom from shrimp diseases in the European Union

The growth in penaeid shrimp aquaculture has been mirrored by the emergence of a number of serious diseases, some of which (e.g. white spot syndrome virus - WSSV) spread rapidly across the globe through movement of infected stock. The World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) lists six penaeid shrimp pathogens of which three are notifiable in the EU: WSSV (listed as non-exotic to the EU), Taura syndrome virus (TSV) and yellow head disease (YHD) (both listed as exotic). EU Member States (MS) must determine a status for non-exotic diseases (e.g. disease free, unknown, infected). In developing a policy for WSSV, import risk analysis (IRA) can be used to systematically assess the risks of introduction and justify risk mitigation to maintain freedom. OIE guidelines recommend that countries assess the risk of disease introduction via commodities, not listed by the OIE as safe, and apply sanitary measures if necessary. The sanitary measures necessary to maintain freedom from WSSV may not be compatible with current EU animal health legislation. The recent revision by OIE of products listed as safe for international trade strengthens the case for the risks of TSV and YHD introduction into the EU to be assessed. Freedom from WSSV is an important criterion for the development of shrimp aquaculture in the EU. However, in developing disease control policy, governments need to balance the potentially competing interests of all stakeholders, including consumers. Thus economic modelling of the impact of possible sanitary measures on consumer prices of imported products is needed to support decision making. The creation of disease free compartments and post-import risk mitigation for commodities may create the conditions conducive to the development of shrimp aquaculture whilst minimising the costs of maintaining disease freedom.     

The understanding of phytopathogens as a tool in the conservation of heroic viticulture areas

The special characteristics of heroic viticulture combine the geographical features of the territory where particular vineyards are located and the unique production methods used in making their wines reflected in their status as special protection zones. This work sets out the results of a 2 year project in which the impact of the main cryptogamic diseases affecting vines in the Ribeira Sacra designation of origin (northwest Spain) was studied. The incidence of such diseases was assessed to develop strategies for offsetting the high costs incurred by production and the adverse impact on the environment. For this purpose, an aerobiological study of the fungal propagules during the life cycle of the red Mencía variety was carried out. The spore concentrations were correlated with the phenology, climatic conditions and the application of anti-fungal treatments. The analysis shows that greater effectiveness can be achieved in the control of phytopathogenic fungi by means of better identification of the epidemiological development of the pathogen. The determination of the right moment for the application of phytosanitary products is also considered, as well as the correct and most effective doses, and alternative measures that do not involve the use of phytosanitary products. The study contributes to the sustainability of the crop area by seeking to integrate three fundamental dimensions: the societal context, the economy and the environment.

     

A Game of Cat and Fish: How to Restore the Balance in Sustainable Fisheries Management

This article argues that continued reliance on input/output controls and restrictions in fisheries management may be insufficient to protect global fish stocks. Instead, a transition beyond supply-side measures to those aimed at reducing demand for fish stocks may be necessary. The article offers a proposal for five types of demand-side or market-based measures: elimination of fishing subsidies, bolstering of import restrictions, ceasing trade in endangered and threatened fish stocks, strengthening civil and criminal penalties against illegal fishers, and pursuit of punitive trade sanctions against flag states flouting international fishery guidelines to help prevent and deter global overfishing.     

Evaluating the impacts of wood production and trade on bird extinction risks

Biodiversity loss can be accelerated by human consumption in regions that are far removed from habitat degradation because of economic globalization, but no study has directly quantified the effects of global trade on extinction risks at a global scale with consideration for species differences. We propose a novel biodiversity footprint index based on bird extinction risks to evaluate the effects of global wood production and trade on biodiversity. Using 536 endangered bird species threatened by wood harvesting and logging, we calculated the “quasi-extinction” probabilities, that is, the probabilities that population sizes become lower than an extinction threshold after habitat loss based on initial population sizes and forest habitat loss rates. We then used bilateral wood trade data to link the biodiversity impacts in wood exporters to wood importers. We found that if recent trends in forest cover loss continue until 2100, bird species in Brazil would be the most rapidly and heavily affected by wood production and trade, followed by those in Indonesia; these two countries alone would account for about half of all global bird extinctions. Large-scale wood importers (i.e., China, Japan, and the United States) significantly elevate overseas extinction risks and, simultaneously, reduce domestic impacts, indicating a heavy responsibility of these countries for global biodiversity loss. We also conducted a scenario analysis, which showed that the total projected number of extinct species would not decrease if each country produced the amount of wood materials necessary to meet current consumption levels. This is because bird extinction risks in tropical wood importers, such as Mexico and the Philippines, as well as Japan and China will increase if these countries increase domestic wood production. Our biodiversity footprint index is useful to identify countries whose bird species are highly affected by wood production and trade, and to quantify the role of wood trade in bird species extinctions. Additional scenario analyses are needed to establish effective patterns of wood production and consumption for bird biodiversity conservation.