Physiological Diversity of the Rhizosphere Diazotroph Assemblages of Selected Salt Marsh Grasses

Rhizosphere diazotroph assemblages of salt marsh grasses are thought to be influenced by host plant species and by a number of porewater geochemical parameters. Several geochemical variables can adversely affect plant productivity and spatial distributions, resulting in strong zonation of plant species and growth forms. This geochemically induced stress may also influence the species compositions and distributions of rhizosphere diazotroph assemblages, but little is currently known about these organisms. The diversity and key physiological features of culturable, O₂-tolerant rhizosphere diazotrophs associated with the tall and short growth forms of Spartina alterniflora and with Juncus roemerianus were examined. A total of 339 gram-negative strains were isolated by a root stab culture approach and morphologically and physiologically characterized by using API and BIOLOG tests. Eighty-six distinct groups composed of physiologically similar strains were identified. Of these groups, 72% were shown to be capable of N₂ fixation through molecular analyses, and a representative strain was chosen from each diazotroph group for further characterization. Cluster and principal-components analysis of BIOLOG data allowed the designation of physiologically distinct strain groupings. Most of these groups were dominated by strains that were not identifiable to species on the basis of API or BIOLOG testing. Representatives of several families including the Enterobacteriaceae, Vibrionaceae, Azotobacteraceae, Spirillaceae, Pseudomonadaceae, and Rhizobiaceae were recovered, as well as strains with no clear taxonomic affiliations. This study identifies numerous potentially important physiological groups of the salt marsh diazotroph assemblage.     

Seasonal Variability of Diazotroph Assemblages Associated with the Rhizosphere of the Salt Marsh Cordgrass, Spartina alterniflora

Nitrogen fixation is the primary N source in the highly productive but N-limited North Inlet, SC, USA salt marsh system. The diverse assemblages of nitrogen-fixing (diazotrophic) bacteria associated with the rhizospheres of the short and tall growth forms of Spartina alterniflora were analyzed at two sites, Crab Haul Creek and Goat Island, which are in different tidal creek drainage systems in this marsh. The sites differed in proximity to the main channel for tidal intrusion and in several edaphic parameters. We hypothesized that either the differing abiotic environmental regimes of the two sites or the variation due to seasonal effects result in differences in the diazotroph assemblage. Rhizosphere samples were collected seasonally during 1999 and 2000. DNA was purified and nifH amplified for denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE) analysis of diazotroph assemblage composition. Principal components analysis was used to analyze the binary DGGE band position data. Season strongly influenced assemblage composition and biplots were used to identify bands that significantly affected the seasonal and site-specific clustering. The types of organisms that were most responsive to seasonal or site variability were identified on the basis of DGGE band sequences. Seasonally responsive members of the anaerobic diazotrophs were detected during the winter and postsenescence conditions and may have been responsible for elevated pore water sulfide concentrations. Sequences from a diverse assemblage of Gammaproteobacteria were predominant during growth periods of S. alterniflora. Abiotic environmental parameters strongly influenced both the S. alterniflora and the diazotrophic bacterial assemblages associated with this keystone salt marsh plant species.     

Restoration of Arthropod Assemblages in a Spartina Salt Marsh following Removal of the Invasive Plant Phragmites australis

Invasive plants are one of the most serious threats to native species assemblages and have been responsible for the degradation of natural habitats worldwide. As a result, removal of invasive species and reestablishment of natural vegetation have been attempted in order to restore biodiversity and ecosystem function. This study examined how native arthropod assemblages, an abundant and functionally important group of organisms in many ecosystems, are affected by the incursion of the invasive wetland plant Phragmites australis and if the restoration of the native vegetation in brackish Spartina alterniflora marshes results in the reestablishment of the arthropod community. The invasion of Phragmites into a coastal Spartina marsh in southern New Jersey seriously altered arthropod assemblages and trophic structure by changing the abundance of trophic groups (detritivores, herbivores, carnivores) and their taxonomic composition. Herbivore assemblages shifted from the dominance of external free‐living specialists (e.g., planthoppers) in Spartina to concealed feeders in Phragmites (stem‐feeding cecidomyiids). Moreover, free‐living arthropods in Phragmites became dominated by detritivores such as Collembola and chironomids. The dominant marsh spiders, web‐building linyphiids, were significantly reduced in Phragmites habitats, likely caused by differences in the physical environment of the invaded habitats (e.g., lower stem densities). Thus, trophic structure of arthropod assemblages in Phragmites, as seen in the large shifts in feeding guilds, was significantly different from that in Spartina. Removal of Phragmites with the herbicide glyphosate resulted in the rapid return of Spartina (≤5 yrs). Moreover, return of the dominant vegetation was accompanied by the recovery of most original habitat characteristics (e.g., live and dead plant biomass, water flow rate). The arthropod assemblage associated with Spartina also quickly returned to its preinvasion state and was not distinguishable from that in uninvaded Spartina reference sites. This study provides evidence that the reestablishment of native vegetation in areas previously altered by an invasive plant can result in the rapid recovery of the native arthropod assemblage associated with the restored habitat.     

Bacterial Community Assemblages Associated with the Phyllosphere,Dermosphere, and Rhizosphere of Tree Species of the Atlantic Forest are Host Taxon Dependent

Bacterial communities associated with tree canopies have been shown to be specific to their plant hosts, suggesting that plant species-specific traits may drive the selection of microbial species that comprise their microbiomes. To further examine the degree to which the plant taxa drive the assemblage of bacterial communities in specific plant microenvironments, we evaluated bacterial community structures associated with the phyllosphere, dermosphere, and rhizosphere of seven tree species representing three orders, four families and four genera of plants from a pristine Dense Ombrophilous Atlantic forest in Brazil, using a combination of PCR-DGGE of 16S rRNA genes and clone library sequencing. Results indicated that each plant species selected for distinct bacterial communities in the phyllosphere, dermosphere, and rhizosphere, and that the bacterial community structures are significantly related to the plant taxa, at the species, family, and order levels. Further characterization of the bacterial communities of the phyllosphere and dermosphere of the tree species showed that they were inhabited predominantly by species of Gammaproteobacteria, mostly related to Pseudomonas. In contrast, the rhizosphere bacterial communities showed greater species richness and evenness, and higher frequencies of Alphaproteobacteria and Acidobacteria Gp1. With individual tree species each selecting for their specific microbiomes, these findings greatly increase our estimates of the bacterial species richness in tropical forests and provoke questions concerning the ecological functions of the microbial communities that exist on different plant parts.     

Drainage and Elevation as Factors in the Restoration of Salt Marsh in Britain

Intertidal restoration through realignment of flood defenses has become an important component of the U.K. coastal and estuarine management strategy. Although experimentation with recent deliberate breaches is in progress, the long‐term prognosis for salt marsh restoration can be investigated at a number of sites around Essex, southeast England where salt marshes have been reactivated (unmanaged restoration) by storm events over past centuries. These historically reactivated marshes possess higher creek densities than their natural marsh counterparts. Both geomorphology and sedimentology determine the hydrology of natural and restored salt marshes. Elevation relative to the tidal frame is known to be the primary determinant of vegetation colonization and succession. Yet vegetation surveys and geotechnical analysis at a natural marsh, where areas with good drainage exist in close proximity to areas of locally hindered drainage at the same elevation, revealed a significant inverse relationship between water saturation in the root zone and the abundance of Atriplex portulacoides, normally the physiognomic dominant on upper salt marsh in the region. Elsewhere in Essex natural and restored marshes are typified by very high sediment water contents, and this is reflected in low abundance of A. portulacoides. After a century of reestablishment no significant difference could be discerned between the vegetation composition of the storm‐reactivated marshes and their natural marsh counterparts. We conclude that vegetation composition may be restored within a century of dike breaching, but this vegetation does not provide a reliable indicator of ecological functions related to creek structure.     

Physical and Functional Responses to Experimental Marsh Surface Elevation Manipulation in Coos Bay's South Slough

Dike material was used as fill to construct high, mid, and low intertidal elevations in a subsided marsh located in the South Slough National Estuarine Research Reserve, Oregon. Marsh surface elevation change (including fill consolidation and compression of the original marsh soils), vertical accretion, tidal channel development, emergent vegetation colonization, and fish use were monitored over 3 years. Significant marsh surface elevation loss was detected at all elevations, with fill consolidation accounting for 70% of the loss at the highest elevation. Vertical accretion averaged 0.19 cm/yr in the sparsely vegetated Kunz Marsh compared with 0.70 cm/yr at the densely vegetated reference sites. Tidal channel development was influenced as much by marsh surface gradient as by marsh surface elevation. Vegetation colonization was directly correlated with elevation, whereas density and species richness of fish was inversely correlated with elevation. Manipulating the marsh surface to mid‐marsh elevations favors rapid vegetation colonization and facilitates vertical accretion‐dominated tidal channel development. Low marsh elevations result in initially slower developing vegetation colonization and channel development but are more beneficial to fish during the early stages of marsh recovery. High marsh elevations appear to sacrifice tidal channel development and associated fish access for rapid vegetation colonization.     

Spatial and Temporal Assessment of Diazotroph Assemblage Composition in Vegetated Salt Marsh Sediments Using Denaturing Gradient Gel Electrophoresis Analysis

Abstract Diazotroph assemblage compositions were assessed in rhizosphere sediments from the tall and short form Spartina alterniflora growth zones over an annual cycle. Sediment cores were collected for DNA extraction and nitrogenase (acetylene reduction) activity assays, and porewater samples were analyzed for several chemical parameters in March, June, September, and December 1997. These data were collected to determine if within- or between-zone differences in the diazotroph assemblage composition correlated with differences in key environmental variables or acetylene reduction activity. Acetylene reduction rates differed between zones and within a zone over an annual period. Soluble sulfide concentrations were higher in the short form S. alterniflora zone on all dates except those in June and differed within both zones on different sample dates. nifH sequences were recovered from rhizosphere sediment DNA by PCR amplification using nifH specific primers. These amplimers were analyzed using denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE), and the resulting patterns were compared by neural network and linear discriminant analyses. Ten prominent amplimers, four of which were apparent heteroduplexes, were observed. DGGE banding profiles showed minor differences among sampling dates and between sample zones, but the overall banding pattern was remarkably consistent. This reflects overall similarity between the amplifiable diazotroph assemblages in the tall and short S. alterniflora growth zones and substantial seasonal stability in assemblage composition. Received: 2 March 1999; Accepted: 4 May 1999     

Global Metabolic Responses to Salt Stress in Fifteen Species

Cells constantly adapt to unpredictably changing extracellular solute concentrations. A cornerstone of the cellular osmotic stress response is the metabolic supply of energy and building blocks to mount appropriate defenses. Yet, the extent to which osmotic stress impinges on the metabolic network remains largely unknown. Moreover, it is mostly unclear which, if any, of the metabolic responses to osmotic stress are conserved among diverse organisms or confined to particular groups of species. Here we investigate the global metabolic responses of twelve bacteria, two yeasts and two human cell lines exposed to sustained hyperosmotic salt stress by measuring semiquantitative levels of hundreds of cellular metabolites using nontargeted metabolomics. Beyond the accumulation of osmoprotectants, we observed significant changes of numerous metabolites in all species. Global metabolic responses were predominantly species-specific, yet individual metabolites were characteristically affected depending on species’ taxonomy, natural habitat, envelope structure or salt tolerance. Exploiting the breadth of our dataset, the correlation of individual metabolite response magnitudes across all species implicated lower glycolysis, tricarboxylic acid cycle, branched-chain amino acid metabolism and heme biosynthesis to be generally important for salt tolerance. Thus, our findings place the global metabolic salt stress response into a phylogenetic context and provide insights into the cellular phenotype associated with salt tolerance.     

植物盐胁迫应答的分子机制

植物对盐胁迫的耐受反应是个复杂的过程,在分子水平上它包括对外界盐信号的感应和传递,特异转基录因子的激活和下游控制生理生化应答的效应基因的表达。在生化应答中,本着重讨论负责维持和重建离子平衡的膜转运蛋白、渗调剂的生物合成和功能及水分控制。这些生理生化应答最终使得液泡中离子浓度升高和渗调剂在胞质中积累,近年来,通过对各种盐生植物或盐敏感突变株的研究,阐明了许多盐应答的离子转运途径、水通道和特种特异的渗调剂代谢途径,克隆了其相关基因并能在转基因淡水植物中产生耐盐表型,另一方面,在拟南芥突变体及利用酵母盐敏感突变株功能互补筛选得到一些编码信号传递蛋白的基因,这些都有助于阐明植物盐胁迫应答的分子机制。     

Physiological Responses of Three Contrasting Plant Species to Groundwater Level Changes in an Arid Environment

Plants growing on both sides of the Tarim River in western China serve as a natural barrier containing the deserts and protecting the oasis, and their growth is greatly affected by water conditions In their local habitat. We studied the physiological responses of three different types plants （i.e. Populus euphratlca Oliver, Tamarix ramosissima L., and Apocynum venetumas Linn） to changing groundwater levels by analyzing changes in chlorophyll, soluble sugar, proline （Pro）, malondialdehyde （MDA）, superoxlde dlsmutase （SOD）, peroxidase （POD）, indoleacetic acid （IAA）, giberellic acid, abscisic acid （ABA） and cytokinin （CK）. Relationships between these physiological characteristics and groundwater levels were analyzed in order to assess the drought tolerance of the three plant species based on the values of average membership function. We found that MDA, SOD and ABA were more susceptible to changes in groundwater level, followed by POD, IAA and CK. Among the three plant species, Populus euphratica responded physiologically less to changing groundwater level than T. ramosissima and A. venetumas.     

Responses of Calcicole and Calcifuge Poaceae Species to Iron-Limiting Conditions

Six differently distributed Poaceae species were compared in order to identify morphological and/or physiological properties that ensure calcicole species but not calcifuge species a sufficient Fe supply on CaCO₃ rich soils. When grown at a range of FeEDTA supply from deficient to adequate, the calcicole species had higher Fe productivities and relative yields at low Fe supply than the calcifuges. Specific root surface and Fe uptake requirements were lower in calcicoles than in calcifuges. Root exudation of Fe-mobilizing compounds was monitored in plants grown either with or without added FeEDTA in hydroponic culture. Under Fe deficiency, typically more than 80% of soluble root exudates of Poaceae are phytosiderophores (Marschner et al., 1989; Römheld, 1987). Maximum exudation rates of Fe mobilizing compounds were 6.6 to 11.5 μmol g^?1 root dry wt 2 hr^?1 in calcicoles and 0.48 to 1.64 in calcifuges. If Fe requirement is defined as mean Fe uptake rate required for 90 % of the maximal relative growth rate, the exudation rates of Fe mobilizing compounds were at least 11.7 to 31.9 times higher than Fe requirements in calcicoles and 0.38 to 5.36 times higher in calcifuges. Growth response to a precipitated versus a chelated Fe source was determined. The relative ability to grow with Fe(OH)₃ precipitate was correlated with the Fe mobilization rate of the species. The present results give evidence for the importance of Fe efficiency in wild plants. Calcicoles are able to live on calcareous soils partly because they produce larger amounts of Fe mobilizing compounds and have lower tissue Fe requirements than calcifuges.     

Geomorphology and Species Interactions Control Facilitation Cascades in a Salt Marsh Ecosystem

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Hydrologic, Edaphic, and Vegetative Responses to Microtopographic Reestablishment in a Restored Wetland

Microtopography is a characteristic feature of many natural wetlands that is commonly lacking in restored wetlands (RWs). Consequently, it has been suggested that microtopography must be reestablished in RWs to accelerate the development of wetland function. The objective of this research was to examine responses of hydrology, soils, and vegetation to microtopographic reestablishment at a 3‐year‐old RW site in North Carolina. Microtopography was reestablished by configuring hummocks (mounds) and hollows (depressions), on otherwise level terrain (flats) of intermediate elevation. For most of the 2003 growing season, mean water table depths were below the soil surface in the flats and 10 cm above the soil surface in the hollows. Analysis of variance revealed significant microtopography by time interactions for soil temperature (p < 0.05) and moisture (p < 0.001), indicating that differences between zones were not consistent throughout the growing season. Hummocks had significantly higher nitrate (p < 0.0001) and ammonium (p= 0.001) than flats and hollows for most of the growing season. Differences in microbial biomass carbon and denitrification enzyme activity across the microtopographic zones were not detected. Plant species richness was significantly different (p < 0.001) across the microtopographic zones, with hummocks < hollows < flats. Flats supported the greatest numbers of wetland species. Aboveground biomass differed significantly (p < 0.001) across the microtopographic zones and followed a different pattern than richness: hummocks < flats < hollows, owing to the growth of emergent wetland herbs in hollows.     

Responses of Plant Communities to Incremental Hydrologic Restoration of a Tide-Restricted Salt Marsh in Southern New England (Massachusetts, U.S.A.)

Hydrologic restoration of Hatches Harbor, a tide-restricted marsh on Cape Cod (Massachusetts), has resulted in significant plant community changes 7 years following the reintroduction of seawater. Since 1999, incremental increases in flow through a tide-restricting dike have facilitated the rapid decline of salt-intolerant vegetation, while encouraging the expansion of native salt marsh taxa. These changes show strong spatial gradients and are correlated with marsh surface elevation, distance from the point of seawater entry, and porewater salinity. Common reed ( Phragmites australis ) has not decreased in abundance but has migrated a considerable distance upslope. In the wake of this retreat native halophytes have proliferated. Now that maximum flow through the existing dike structure has been reached, continued recovery may be limited less by changing physicochemical conditions and more by rates of growth, seed dispersal, and seed germination of salt marsh taxa.     

Early Responses of Fishes and Crustaceans to Restoration of a Tidally Restricted New England Salt Marsh

Nekton (fishes and decapod crustaceans) is an abundant and productive faunal component of salt marshes, yet nekton responses to tidal manipulations of New England salt marshes remain unclear. This study examined nekton use of a tidally restricted salt marsh in Narragansett, Rhode Island relative to an unrestricted marsh during summer. In addition, a before‐after‐control‐impact design was used to examine early responses of nekton to the reintroduction of natural tidal flushing. Species richness and densities of Cyprinodon variegatus, Lucania parva, Menidia beryllina, and Palaemonetes pugio were higher in the restricted marsh compared with the unrestricted marsh. The unrestricted marsh supported higher densities of Menidia menidia and Fundulus majalis. Mean lengths of Carcinus maenas and P. pugio were greater in the restricted marsh. Tidal restoration resulted in increased tidal flushing, salinity, and water depth in the restricted marsh. Densities of Fundulus heteroclitus, F. majalis, and Callinectes sapidus were higher after 2 years of restoration. Density of L. parva decreased after restoration, probably in response to a loss of macroalgal habitat. Species richness also decreased after 2 years, from 20.9 species when the marsh was restricted to 13.0 species. Total nekton density did not change with restoration, but shifts in community composition were evident. In this study restoration induced rapid changes in the composition, density, size, and distribution of nekton species, but additional monitoring is necessary to quantify longer‐term effects of salt marsh restoration on nekton.     

锡林河流域草原群落植物多样性和初级生产力沿水热梯度变化的样带研究

用样带法研究了草原群落植物多样性和初级生产力沿海拔和水分梯度的变化,结果表明;在样带梯度上,物种丰富度、多样性和群落初级生产力与海拔高度、年降水量和土壤有机C及全N含量呈正相关,而与年平均气温和干燥度呈负相关。随着海拔高度的降低,降水量的减少,热量和干燥度的增加,以及土壤有机C和全N含量的降低,草原群落的物种丰富度、多样性和初级生产力逐渐降低。典型相关分析的结果揭示出,土壤有机C含量和干燥度是对草原群落物种丰富度和初级生产力具有更大的影响。同时,草地的利用方式和强度对群落植物多样性和生产力也具有较强的影响。     

Plant Community Responses to Simultaneous Changes in Temperature,Nitrogen Availability,and Invasion

Background

Increasing rates of change in climate have been observed across the planet and have contributed to the ongoing range shifts observed for many species. Although ecologists are now using a variety of approaches to study how much and through what mechanisms increasing temperature and nutrient pollution may influence the invasions inherent in range shifts, accurate predictions are still lacking.

Methods and Results

In this study, we conducted a factorial experiment, simultaneously manipulating warming, nitrogen addition and introduction of Pityopsis aspera, to determine how range-shifting species affect a plant community. We quantified the resident community using ordination scores, then used structural equation modeling to examine hypotheses related to how plants respond to a network of experimental treatments and environmental variables. Variation in soil pH explained plant community response to nitrogen addition in the absence of invasion. However, in the presence of invasion, the direct effect of nitrogen on the community was negligible and soil moisture was important for explaining nitrogen effects. We did not find effects of warming on the native plant community in the absence of invasion. In the presence of invasion, however, warming had negative effects on functional richness directly and invasion and herbivory explained the overall positive effect of warming on the plant community.

Conclusions and Significance

This work highlights the variation in the biotic and abiotic factors responsible for explaining independent and collective climate change effects over a short time scale. Future work should consider the complex and non-additive relationships among factors of climate change and invasion in order to capture more ecologically relevant features of our changing environment.