Endothelial regulation of calmodulin expression and eNOS–calmodulin interaction in vascular smooth muscle

Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry - Calmodulin (CaM) is a Ca2+ sensor protein that is required for numerous vascular smooth muscle cell (VSMC) functions. Since CaM is not expressed enough for its...     

The distribution of calmodulin and Ca^2＋—activated calmodulin in cell cycle of mouse erythroleukemia cells

Cell proliferation is accompanied with changing levels of intracellular calmodulin (CaM) and its activation.Prior data from synchronized cell population could not actually stand for various CaM levels in different phases of cell cycle.Here,based upon quantitative measurement of fluorescence in individual cells,a method was developed to investigate intracellular total CaM and Ca^2 -activated CaM contents. Intensity of CaM immunoflurescence gave total CaM level,and Ca^2 -activated CaM was measured by fluorescence intensity of CaM antagonist trifluoperazine (TFP).In mouse erythroleukemia (MEL) cells,total CaM level increased from G1 through S to G2M,reaching a maximum of 2-fold increase,then reduced to half amount after cell division.Meanwhile,Ca^2 -activated CaM also in creased through the cell cycle(G1,S,G2M).Increasing observed in G1 meant that the entry of cells from G1 into S phase may require CaM accumulation,and,equally or even more important,Ca^2 -dependent activation of CaM.Ca^2 -activated CaM decreased after cell division.The results suggested that CaM gene expression and C^2 -modulated CaM activation act synergistically to accomplish the cell cycle progression.     

Interaction of α-N-acetyl-β-endorphin and calmodulin

Acetylation at the α-amino terminal is a common post-translational modification of many peptides and proteins. In the case of the potent opiate peptide β-endorphin, α-N-acetylation is a known physiological modification that abolishes opiate activity. Since there are no known receptors for α-N-acetyl-β-endorphin, we have studied the association of this peptide with calmodulin, a calcium-dependent protein that binds a variety of peptides, phenothiazines, and enzymes, as a model system for studying acetylated endorphin-protein interactions. Association of the acetylated peptide with calmodulin was demonstrated by cross-linking with bis(sulfosuccinimidyl)suberate; like β-endorphin, adducts containing 1 mol and 2 mol of acetylated peptide per mole calmodulin were formed. Some of the bound peptides are evidently in relatively close proximity to each other since, in the presence of amidated (i.e., lysine-blocked) calmodulin, cross-linking yielded peptide dimers. The acetylated peptide exhibited no appreciable helicity in aqueous solution, but in trifluoroethanol (TFE) considerable helicity was formed. Also, a mixture of acetylated peptide and calmodulin was characterized by a circular dichroic spectrum indicative of induced helicity. Empirical prediction rules, applied earlier to β-endorphin, suggest that residues 14–24 exhibit α-helix potential. This segment has the potential of forming an amphipathic helix; this structural unit is believed to be important in calmodulin binding. The acetylated peptide was capable of inhibiting the calmodulin-mediated stimulation of cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterase (EC 3.1.4.17) activity with an effective dose for 50% inhibition of about 3 µM; this inhibitory effect was demonstrated using both an enzyme-enriched preparation as well as highly purified enzyme. Thus, acetylation at the α-amino terminal of β-endorphin, although abolishing opiate activity, does not interfere with the binding to calmodulin. Indeed, β-endorphin and the α-N-acetylated peptide behave very similarly with respect to calmodulin association.     

Immunoelectron microscopic localization of calmodulin in corn root cells

Methods for the localization of plant calmodulin by immuno-gold and immuno-peroxidase electron microscopy have been developed. In both corn root-cap cells and meristematic cells, calmodulin was found to be localized in the nucleus, cytoplasm, mitochondria as well as in the cell wall, In the meristematic cells, calmodulin was distinctly localized on the plasma membrane, cytoplasmic face of rough endoplasmic rcticulum and polyribosomes. Characteristically, calmodulin was present in the amyloplasts of root-cap cells. The widespread distribution of calmodulin may reflect its plciotropic functions in plant cellular activities.     

Conservation of the 3′-untranslated regions of calmodulin mRNAs in cetaceans

Three separate calmodulin (CaM) genes (I, II and III) encoding an identical CaM protein but differing in the 5- and 3-untranslated regions of each of the three mRNAs are present and highly conserved in all mammals (so far examined). Primers complementary to the 3- untranslated region (3UTR) of each of the three mRNAs occurring in human, rat and mouse were synthesized and used to amplify regions of the 3UTR from genomic DNA isolated from cetaceans, specifically from the bottled-nosed dolphin (Tursiops truncates), the pygmy sperm whale (Kogia breviceps) and the humpback whale (Megaptera novaeangliae). Using several primers and PCR conditions, the three CaM genes were identified in all three species by this method with one exception. The sequenced regions of the 3UTRs of the three genes of the cetaceans exhibited a high percentage identity when compared to the corresponding regions of these three CaM mRNAs isolated from humans (85-96%). These partial sequences of the 3UTR regions and the corresponding regions for humans, rats and mice that were available from the database were aligned and a phylogenetic tree was constructed. The three CaM genes from all species showed a close phylogenetic relationship based on these 3UTR sequences. Such high conservation of the 3UTRs suggests a specialized and significant function for this region in mammals.     

Distribution and role of calmodulin in tip growing hyphae of Saprolegnia ferax

INTanDUCTIONFungalhyphaeextendbytipgrowthandhaveahigherconceotration0fCa2 intheiraPicesthantheirbases,afactwhichispr0bablyrelatedt0theimp0rtentroleplayedbycalcinminestablishingandmaintainingapical0rganizati0n,mor-ph0g9nesis,and,grtiWth[1-6].Tounderstandthethefullcti0nofCa2 inhyphaltipgrbwth,'Ca' -bindingproteinsmustbeidentifiedandtheirflincti0nsdetermined.CaM,a,ubiquitousilltracellularCa' -bindingpr0teinwhichfuncti0nst0mediatemanyCa' -regulatedpr0cessesincells,naturallyhasbeenreceivedal…     

Molecular dynamics studies on conformational thermodynamics of Orai1–calmodulin complex

Molecular understanding of bio-macromolecular binding is a challenging task due to large sizes of the molecules and presence of variety of interactions. Here, we study the molecular mechanism of calmodulin (CaM) binding to Orai1 that regulates Ca²⁺-dependent inactivation process in eukaryotic cells. Although experimental observations indicate that Orai1 binds to the C-terminal of Ca²⁺-loaded CaM, it is not decisive if N-domain of CaM interacts with Orai1. We address the issue of interaction of different domains of CaM with Orai1 using conformational thermodynamic changes, computed from histograms of dihedral angles over simulated trajectories of CaM, CaM-binding domain of Orai1 and complexes of CaM with Orai1. The changes for all residues of both C and N terminal domains of CaM upon Orai1 binding are compared. Our analysis shows that Orai1binds to both C-terminal and N-terminal domains of CaM, indicating 1:2 stoichiometry. The Orai1 binding to N-terminal domain of CaM is less stable than that to the C-terminal domain. The binding residues are primarily hydrophobic. These observations are in qualitative agreement to the experiments. The conformational thermodynamic changes thus provide a useful computational tool to provide atomic details of interactions in bio-macromolecular binding.     

α-Calcium calmodulin kinase II modulates the temporal structure of hippocampal bursting patterns

The alpha calcium calmodulin kinase II (α-CaMKII) is known to play a key role in CA1/CA3 synaptic plasticity, hippocampal place cell stability and spatial learning. Additionally, there is evidence from hippocampal electrophysiological slice studies that this kinase has a role in regulating ion channels that control neuronal excitability. Here, we report in vivo single unit studies, with α-CaMKII mutant mice, in which threonine 305 was replaced with an aspartate (α-CaMKII(T305D) mutants), that indicate that this kinase modulates spike patterns in hippocampal pyramidal neurons. Previous studies showed that α-CaMKII(T305D) mutants have abnormalities in both hippocampal LTP and hippocampal-dependent learning. We found that besides decreased place cell stability, which could be caused by their LTP impairments, the hippocampal CA1 spike patterns of α-CaMKII(T305D) mutants were profoundly abnormal. Although overall firing rate, and overall burst frequency were not significantly altered in these mutants, inter-burst intervals, mean number of intra-burst spikes, ratio of intra-burst spikes to total spikes, and mean intra-burst intervals were significantly altered. In particular, the intra burst intervals of place cells in α-CaMKII(T305D) mutants showed higher variability than controls. These results provide in vivo evidence that besides its well-known function in synaptic plasticity, α-CaMKII, and in particular its inhibitory phosphorylation at threonine 305, also have a role in shaping the temporal structure of hippocampal burst patterns. These results suggest that some of the molecular processes involved in acquiring information may also shape the patterns used to encode this information.     

Synergistic activation of bovine cerebellum adenylate cyclase by calmodulin and β-adrenergic agonists

The relationship between calmodulin-dependent and β-adrenergic-sensitive adenylate cyclase activities was examined in membrane preparations from bovine cerebellum. Although stimulation by β-adrenergic agonists or calmodulin can occur independently, it is shown that their simultaneous presence has a strong synergistic effect on enzyme activity. Calmodulin did not influence the regulatory components of the neurotransmitter-dependent pathway as shown by the lack of effect on (1) receptor affinity, (2) GTP requirement for receptor-mediated activation, (3) rate of activation by guanyl 5′-yl imidodiphosphate [Gpp(NH)p]. Conversely, isoproterenol and guanine nucleotides did not modify to a significant extent the characteristics of enzyme stimulation by Ca²⁺ and calmodulin. Furthermore, calmodulin and Gpp(NH)p-dependent activities displayed different sensitivities to thermal inactivation.Our results indicate that β-adrenergic agonists and calmodulin interact with the same catalytic activity in cerebellar membranes, but presumably via two independent pathways.     

Processing of acetylated human low-density lipoprotein by parenchymal and non-parenchymal liver cells. Involvement of calmodulin?

1. Modified lipoproteins have been implicated to play a significant role in the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis. In view of this we studied the fate and mechanism of uptake in vivo of acetylated human low-density lipoprotein (acetyl-LDL). Injected intravenously into rats, acetyl-LDL is rapidly cleared from the blood. At 10min after intravenous injection, 83% of the injected dose is recovered in liver. Separation of the liver into a parenchymal and non-parenchymal cell fraction indicates that the non-parenchymal cells contain a 30-50-fold higher amount of radioactivity per mg of cell protein than the parenchymal cells. 2. When incubated in vitro, freshly isolated non-parenchymal cells show a cell-association of acetyl-LDL that is 13-fold higher per mg of cell protein than with parenchymal cells, and the degradation of acetyl-LDL is 50-fold higher. The degradation of acetyl-LDL by both cell types is blocked by chloroquine (10-50mum) and NH(4)Cl (10mm), indicating that it occurs in the lysosomes. Competition experiments indicate the presence of a specific acetyl-LDL receptor and degradation pathway, which is different from that for native LDL. 3. Degradation of acetyl-LDL by non-parenchymal cells is completely blocked by trifluoperazine, penfluridol and chlorpromazine with a relative effectivity that corresponds to their effectivity as calmodulin inhibitors. The high-affinity degradation of human LDL is also blocked by trifluoperazine (100mum). The inhibition of the processing of acetyl-LDL occurs at a site after the binding-internalization process and before intralysosomal degradation. It is suggested that calmodulin, or a target with a similar sensitivity to calmodulin inhibitors, is involved in the transport of the endocytosed acetyl-LDL to or into the lysosomes. 4. It is concluded that the liver, and in particular non-parenchymal liver cells, are in vivo the major site for acetyl-LDL uptake. This efficient uptake and degradation mechanism for acetyl-LDL in the liver might form in vivo the major protection system against the potential pathogenic action of modified lipoproteins.     

Recognition of β-calcineurin by the domains of calmodulin: thermodynamic and structural evidence for distinct roles

Calcineurin (CaN, PP2B, PPP3), a heterodimeric Ca²⁺‐calmodulin‐dependent Ser/Thr phosphatase, regulates swimming in Paramecia, stress responses in yeast, and T‐cell activation and cardiac hypertrophy in humans. Calcium binding to CaN_B (the regulatory subunit) triggers conformational change in CaN_A (the catalytic subunit). Two isoforms of CaN_A (α, β) are both abundant in brain and heart and activated by calcium‐saturated calmodulin (CaM). The individual contribution of each domain of CaM to regulation of calcineurin is not known. Hydrodynamic analyses of (Ca²⁺)₄‐CaM_1–148 bound to βCaNp, a peptide representing its CaM‐binding domain, indicated a 1:1 stoichiometry. βCaNp binding to CaM increased the affinity of calcium for the N‐ and C‐domains equally, thus preserving intrinsic domain differences, and the preference of calcium for sites III and IV. The equilibrium constants for individual calcium‐saturated CaM domains dissociating from βCaNp were ～1 μM. A limiting K_d ≤ 1 nM was measured directly for full‐length CaM, while thermodynamic linkage analysis indicated that it was approximately 1 pM. βCaNp binding to ¹⁵N‐(Ca²⁺)₄‐CaM_1–148 monitored by ¹⁵N/¹HN HSQC NMR showed that association perturbed the N‐domain of CaM more than its C‐domain. NMR resonance assignments of CaM and βCaNp, and interpretation of intermolecular NOEs observed in the ¹³C‐edited and ¹²C‐¹⁴N‐filtered 3D NOESY spectrum indicated anti‐parallel binding. The sole aromatic residue (Phe) located near the βCaNp C‐terminus was in close contact with several residues of the N‐domain of CaM outside the hydrophobic cleft. These structural and thermodynamic properties would permit the domains of CaM to have distinct physiological roles in regulating activation of βCaN. Proteins 2011. © 2010 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Can calmodulin function without binding calcium?

Calmodulin is a small Ca(2+)-binding protein proposed to act as the intracellular Ca2+ receptor that translates Ca2+ signals into cellular responses. We have constructed mutant yeast calmodulins in which the Ca(2+)-binding loops have been altered by site-directed mutagenesis. Each of the mutant proteins has a dramatically reduced affinity for Ca2+; one does not bind detectable levels of 45Ca2+ either during gel filtration or when bound to a solid support. Furthermore, none of the mutant proteins change conformation even in the presence of high Ca2+ concentrations. Surprisingly, yeast strains relying on any of the mutant calmodulins not only survive but grow well. In contrast, yeast strains deleted for the calmodulin gene are not viable. Thus, calmodulin is required for growth, but it can perform its essential function without the apparent ability to bind Ca2+.     

Inhibition of human ether à go-go potassium channels by Ca(2+)/calmodulin

Intracellular Ca(2+) inhibits voltage-gated potassium channels of the ether à go-go (EAG) family. To identify the underlying molecular mechanism, we expressed the human version hEAG1 in XENOPUS: oocytes. The channels lost Ca(2+) sensitivity when measured in cell-free membrane patches. However, Ca(2+) sensitivity could be restored by application of recombinant calmodulin (CaM). In the presence of CaM, half inhibition of hEAG1 channels was obtained in 100 nM Ca(2+). Overlay assays using labelled CaM and glutathione S-transferase (GST) fusion fragments of hEAG1 demonstrated direct binding of CaM to a C-terminal domain (hEAG1 amino acids 673-770). Point mutations within this section revealed a novel CaM-binding domain putatively forming an amphipathic helix with both sides being important for binding. The binding of CaM to hEAG1 is, in contrast to Ca(2+)-activated potassium channels, Ca(2+) dependent, with an apparent K(D) of 480 nM. Co-expression experiments of wild-type and mutant channels revealed that the binding of one CaM molecule per channel complex is sufficient for channel inhibition.     

Contribution of the KCa3.1 channel–calmodulin interactions to the regulation of the KCa3.1 gating process

The Ca²⁺-activated potassium channel of intermediate conductance, KCa3.1, is now emerging as a therapeutic target for a large variety of health disorders. The Ca²⁺ sensitivity of KCa3.1 is conferred by the Ca²⁺-binding protein calmodulin (CaM), with the CaM C-lobe constitutively bound to an intracellular domain of the channel C terminus. It was proposed on the basis of the crystal structure obtained for the C-terminal region of the rat KCa2.2 channel (rSK2) with CaM that the binding of Ca²⁺ to the CaM N-lobe results in CaM interlocking the C-terminal regions of two adjacent KCa3.1 subunits, leading to the formation of a dimeric structure. A study was thus undertaken to identify residues of the CaM N-lobe–KCa3.1 complex that either contribute to the channel activation process or control the channel open probability at saturating Ca²⁺ (Pomax). A structural homology model of the KCa3.1–CaM complex was first generated using as template the crystal structure of the C-terminal region of the rat KCa2.2 channel with CaM. This model was confirmed by cross-bridging residues R362 of KCa3.1 and K75 of CaM. Patch-clamp experiments were next performed, demonstrating that the solvation energy of the residue at position 367 in KCa3.1 is a key determinant to the channel Pomax and deactivation time t_off. Mutations of residues M368 and Q364 predicted to form anchoring points for CaM binding to KCa3.1 had little impact on either t_off or Pomax. Finally, our results show that channel activation depends on electrostatic interactions involving the charged residues R362 and E363, added to a nonpolar energy contribution coming from M368. We conclude that electrostatic interactions involving residues R362 and E363 and hydrophobic effects at M368 play a prominent role in KCa3.1 activation, whereas hydrophobic interactions at S367 are determinant to the stability of the CaM–KCa3.1 complex throughout gating.     

43Ca nuclear magnetic resonance of Ca2+–calmodulin solutions: Effects of trifluoperazine and peptides

By using a conventional FT NMR spectrometer and probe, we first detected ⁴³Ca NMR spectra of the Ca²⁺ (2.9 mM): calmodulin (0.725 mM) (1:1 per binding site) complex in 0.15 M N-2-hydroxyethylpiperazine N′-2-ethanesulfonic acid (HEPES)–K⁺ buffer (pH 7.2). The half-band width of the complex was nearly 160 Hz and the signal of the complex was located at the 2.13 ppm (43 Hz) lower field from that of the free Ca²⁺ ion. By adding trifluoperazine, melittin, substance P or glucagon, the half-band widths of the Ca²⁺–calmodulin complex (1:1 per binding site) were remarkably reduced and the chemical shifts of the complex moved back to the upper field. It is suggested that the Ca²⁺ ion may bind to Ca²⁺ low-affinity sites more tightly in the presence of those effectors than in their absence.     

Functional properties of the Cav1.2 calcium channel activated by calmodulin in the absence of α2δ subunits

Voltage-activated Ca_v1.2 calcium channels require association of the pore-forming α_1C subunit with accessory Ca_vβ and α₂δ subunits. Binding of a single calmodulin (CaM) to α_1C supports Ca²⁺-dependent inactivation (CDI). The human Ca_v1.2 channel is silent in the absence of Ca_vβ and/or α₂δ. Recently, we found that coexpression of exogenous CaM (CaM_ex) supports plasma membrane targeting, gating facilitation and CDI of the channel in the absence of Ca_vβ. Here we discovered that CaM_ex and its Ca²⁺-insensitive mutant (CaM₁₂₃₄) rendered active α_1C/Ca_vβ channel in the absence of α₂δ. Coexpression of CaM_ex with α_1C and β_2d in calcium-channel-free COS-1 cells recovered gating of the channel and supported CDI. Voltage-dependence of activation was shifted by ≈ +40 mV to depolarization potentials. The calcium current reached maximum at +40 mV (20 mM Ca²⁺) and exhibited approximately 3 times slower activation and 5 times slower inactivation kinetics compared to the wild-type channel. Furthermore, both CaM_ex and CaM₁₂₃₄ accelerated recovery from inactivation and induced facilitation of the calcium current by strong depolarization prepulse, the properties absent from the human vascular/neuronal Ca_v1.2 channel. The data suggest a previously unknown action of CaM that in the presence of Ca_vβ translates into activation of the α₂δ-deficient calcium channel and alteration of its properties.     

Engineering of a novel Ca²⁺-regulated kinesin molecular motor using a calmodulin dimer linker

The kinesin-microtubule system holds great promise as a molecular shuttle device within biochips. However, one current barrier is that such shuttles do not have "on-off" control of their movement. Here we report the development of a novel molecular motor powered by an accelerator and brake system, using a kinesin monomer and a calmodulin (CaM) dimer. The kinesin monomer, K355, was fused with a CaM target peptide (M13 peptide) at the C-terminal part of the neck region (K355-M13). We also prepared CaM dimers using CaM mutants (Q3C), (R86C), or (A147C) and crosslinkers that react with cysteine residues. Following induction of K355-M13 dimerization with CaM dimers, we measured K355-M13 motility and found that it can be reversibly regulated in a Ca(2+)-dependent manner. We also found that velocities of K355-M13 varied depending on the type and crosslink position of the CaM dimer used; crosslink length also had a moderate effect on motility. These results suggest Ca(2+)-dependent dimerization of K355-M13 could be used as a novel molecular shuttle, equipped with an accelerator and brake system, for biochip applications.     

Methylation of calmodulin at carboxylic acid residues in erythrocytes. A non-regulatory covalent modification?

The physiological role of protein carboxy-group methylation reactions in human erythrocytes was studied with calmodulin as an endogenous methyl-group acceptor. The steady-state degree of calmodulin carboxy-group methylation is substoichiometric both in intact cells and in a lysed-cell system (about 0.0003 mol of methyl groups/mol of polypeptide). Purified erythrocyte calmodulin is a substrate for a partially purified erythrocyte carboxy-group methyltransferase and can be methylated to the extent of about 0.0007-0.001 mol of methyl groups/mol of polypeptide. This erythrocyte protein methyltransferase displays an apparent specificity for atypical racemized and/or isomerized D-aspartate and L-isoaspartate residues [McFadden & Clarke (1982) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 79, 2460-2464; Murray & Clarke (1984) J. Biol. Chem. 259, 10722-10732]. Exposure of calmodulin to elevated temperatures before methylation results in racemization of aspartate and/or asparagine residues, and may result in isoaspartate formation as well. The methylatability of these samples also increases as a function of time of heating, independent of the pH (over the range pH 5-9) or Ca2+ concentration; the most significant increase occurs during the initial 60 min, when calmodulin retains a fraction of its biological activity. These results are consistent with the hypothesis that methylation of calmodulin may occur at these uncommon aspartate residues, but are not consistent with a regulatory role for the methylation reaction.