The role of botanical gardens in scientific research,conservation, and citizen science

Plant diversity is currently being lost at an unprecedented rate, resulting in an associated decrease in ecosystem services. About a third of the world's vascular plant species face the threat of extinction due to a variety of devastating activities, including, over-harvesting and over exploitation, destructive agricultural and forestry practices, urbanization, environmental pollution, land-use changes, exotic invasive species, global climate change, and more. We therefore need to increase our efforts to develop integrative conservation approaches for plant species conservation. Botanical gardens devote their resources to the study and conservation of plants, as well as making the world's plant species diversity known to the public. These gardens also play a central role in meeting human needs and providing well-being. In this minireview, a framework for the integrated missions of botanical gardens, including scientific research, in/ex situ conservation, plant resource utilization, and citizen science are cataloged. By reviewing the history of the development of Kunming Botanical Garden, we illustrate successful species conservation approaches (among others, projects involving Camellia, Rhododendron, Magnolia, Begonia, Allium, Nepenthes, medicinal plants, ornamental plants, and Plant Species with Extreme Small Populations), as well as citizen science, and scientific research at Kunming Botanical Garden over the past 80 years. We emphasize that Kunming Botanical Garden focuses largely on the ex situ conservation of plants from Southwest China, especially those endangered, endemic, and economically important plant species native to the Yunnan Plateau and the southern Hengduan Mountains. We also discuss the future challenges and responsibilities of botanical gardens in a changing world, including:the negative effects of outbreeding and/or inbreeding depression; promoting awareness, study, and conservation of plant species diversity; accelerating global access to information about plant diversity; increasing capacity building and training activities. We hope this minireview can promote understanding of the role of botanical gardens.     

广东象头山国家级自然保护区蛇类多样性及保护研究

目的了解广东象头山国家级自然保护区蛇类多样性现状,探讨保护区蛇类资源的有效保护对策。方法采用访问调查和野外样带调查相结合的方法。结果该保护区现已纪录蛇类有5科45种,占中国已纪录蛇类物种数的22．0％,占广东省已纪录蛇类物种数的46．4％,区系组成以东洋界华中区和华南区共有种为主,占82．2％。保护区有国家Ⅰ级重点保护野生动物蚺双带亚种（蟒蛇）（Python molurus bivittatus）,以及舟山眼镜蛇（Najaatra）、眼镜王蛇（Ophiophagus hannah）、灰鼠蛇（Ptyas korros）和滑鼠蛇（Ptyas mucosus）等15种重要经济蛇类。结论广东象头山国家级自然保护区蛇类物种多样性十分丰富,但长期过度猎捕和栖息地遭破坏导致保护区一些蛇类种群数量明显减少,需加强保护。本文针对保护区蛇类保护问题提出5点建议。     

Development of the Concept of ‘Core Resident Species’ for Quality Assurance of an Insect Reserve

Awareness in the eyes of the public is important for involving the wider community in conservation. A dragonfly awareness trail was developed and implemented in the year 2000 at a national botanical garden in South Africa. Such a trail is not likely to always have the same number of dragonfly species either throughout the year or from one year to the next. The aim was to assess dragonfly assemblage changes that occurred along the trail over 3 years, so as to fine-tune expectations that the public may have as regards species to be seen at any particular time. A cumulative species variance for species and speciesenvironmental relations, strongly indicated that certain measured site variables were responsible for the main variation in dragonfly species patterns over time. Habitat requirements of an odonate species may be defined primarily in terms of marginal grasses, floating and submerged vegetation, marginal herbs, sedges and reeds, and pH. Additional variables were percentage shade, exposed rock, marginal forest and water flow characteristics. Both dragonfly species richness and abundance changed over the 3 years. One of the reasons for this was a single, major disturbance, in the form of dredging the reservoir site to reverse ecological succession in 2002. Despite an impact such as this, and after accounting for vagrancy, there were in all 24 ‘core resident species’ still to be seen along the trail from January to May. Another 11 species, including two migrants and one species lost temporarily to dredging disturbance, can be considered only as ‘possibilities’ on any one visit. Assurance that the 24 core species can be seen in the summer months (although only three in winter) is essential for maintaining the bona fide of such a trail, and hence conservation awareness, in the eyes of the public.     

中国的濒危物种及其保护

重点分析了濒危物种的概念，确定原则，阐述了物种保护的三种基因类型，即自养保护、圈养保护和基因保护。简要介绍了国家自然科学基金资助的与物种保护有关的项目。初步探讨限各种不同保护类型中存在的重要科学问题、可能研究领域和方向，以促进我国物种保护和研究的发展。     

中国野生植物保护管理的政策、法律制度分析和建议

中国是全球生物多样性最丰富的国家之一。最近40年, 中国的植物多样性保护取得了巨大成就, 实施了多项政策和法律, 尤其是《野生植物保护条例》和《国家重点保护野生植物名录》先后颁布, 奠定了中国植物保护的法律和政策框架, 就地保护和迁地保护网络基本形成。但与生态文明建设的要求相比, 野生植物保护依然存在许多不足。本文系统回顾了中国野生植物保护管理的政策和法律制度, 从就地保护、迁地保护、开发利用活动管理三方面分析了其优缺点并提出建议; 重点对修订《野生植物保护条例》进行讨论并提出建议, 包括修订野生植物和人工培植的定义、优化对开发利用活动的管理程序、加强国际法和国内法的衔接、细化优化罚则等。     

我国近30年来植物迁地保护及其研究的综述

从20世纪80年代起,中国植物园与世界植物园同步挑起了植物迁地保护的历史重担,使植物园的数量迅速增加至近200个,收集保存了占中国植物区系2/3的20000个物种,并在稀有濒危植物迁地保护原理与方法的科学研究上获得了新的进展。然而,中国植物园的布局与世界的植物园一样,物种越丰富的地区,已建立的植物园越少;在保存的物种中,不仅忽视了遗传多样性的保护,而且有约1/3的国家重点保护种类主要因适应性问题而生长不良、出现生殖障碍,甚至死亡。为了提高我国植物迁地保护的有效性,本文就《中国稀有濒危植物保护名录》的修订与公布、《中国植物保护战略》的制定,以及我国植物园协调机制的建立、植物迁地保护网络系统的完善、稀有濒危植物迁地保护的规范等问题进行讨论。     

Orchid conservation in China from 2000 to 2020: Achievements and perspectives

We review achievements in the conservation of orchid diversity in China over the last 21 years. We provide updated information on orchid biodiversity and suggestions for orchid conservation in China. We outline national policies of biodiversity conservation, especially of orchid conservation, which provide general guidelines for orchid conservation in China. There are now approximately 1708 known species of Orchidaceae in 181 genera in China, including five new genera and 365 new species described over the last 21 years. The assessment of risk of extinction of all 1502 known native orchid species in China in 2013 indicated that 653 species were identified as threatened, 132 species were treated as data-deficient, and four species endemic to China were classified as extinct. Approximately 1100 species (ca. 65%) are protected in national nature reserves, and another ~66 species in provincial nature reserves. About 800 native orchid species have living collections in major botanical gardens. The pollination biology of 74 native orchid species and the genetic diversity and spatial genetic structure of 29 orchid species have been investigated at a local scale and/or across species distributions. The mycorrhizal fungal community composition has been investigated in many genera, such as Bletilla, Coelogyne, Cymbidium, Cypripedium, and Dendrobium. Approximately 292 species will be included in the list of national key protected wild plants this year. Two major tasks for near future include in situ conservation and monitoring population dynamics of endangered species.     

The Western Ordos Plateau as a Biodiversity Center of Relic Shrubs in Arid Areas of China

The western Ordos plateau in the central-north of China is abundant in relic shrub species. Totally 54 shrub species belonging to 31 genera in 16 families are found in 10 desert shrub communities,including 10 local endemic species, five relic shrub species, and seven threatened species defined by the China Red Data Book. The percentage of the threatened shrub species to the total is as high as 12.9%, much greater than the national average (3.5%). Although a National Natural Reserve has been established since 1998 in the western Ordos plateau, the exploitation of mining resources continues to expand at a significant biological cost. Given the circumstances, future conservation efforts should focus on (1) removing coking and cement facilities from the reserve; (2) defining the boundaries of the Western Ordos National Natural Reserve encompassing all habitats where these shrub species occur; (3) implementing comprehensive plans coupling conservation with economic development; (4) enforcing ecological restoration after mining; and (5)␣establishing comprehensive population monitoring systems and promoting ex situ conservation. In addition, two local endemic relic species (Tetraena mongolica and Helianthemum ordosicum), which were defined as rare species in the second conservation priority by the China Red Data Book, should be considered as endangered species in the first conservation priority rank due to the extremely restricted distribution ranges, extremely scarce populations and more prominently, the currently increasing human disturbances caused by mining and urbanization in the core conservation area of the western Ordos plateau.     

A botanical inventory of a tropical seasonal forest in Khao Yai National Park,Thailand: implications for fruit–frugivore interactions

The diversity of plants in tropical forests makes dietary studies of frugivores difficult. This paper provides a botanical inventory of a tropical seasonal forest community in Khao Yai National Park, Thailand. The forest is valuable from a conservation perspective because it is one of the last remaining intact forests in northeastern Thailand, and is an important refuge for many animal and plant species. A 4-ha inventory plot measuring 200 × 200 m was established and all plants greater than or equal to 10 cm in diameter at breast height (dbh) were measured and permanently labeled. We found 1610 stems belonging to 105 species, 76 genera and 35 families, with a combined basal area of 142.5 m². The community was dominated by species of Lauraceae, Cornaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Meliaceae, and Elaeocarpaceae. About one-third of the plant species (40 spp.) identified in this study were vulnerable to extinction because they were mostly dispersed by large frugivores, which were intolerant of human impact. If they disappear, these forests may become dominated by plant species that are dispersed by abiotic means and species with small-seeded fruits.     

Diversity and conservation of Chinese wild begonias

Begonia, one of the most diverse plant taxa and the fifth or sixth largest angiosperm genus, consists of over 1800 accepted species. The number of species recognized within this genus has greatly increased over the past 20 years, rising from 80 to 200 species in China alone. Based on recent field surveys, the number of begonia species in China is predicted to be between 250 and 300. Given the large number of begonia species that still remain to be described, further taxonomical work is urgently required. This is especially true for Chinese Begonia, in which there is a huge diversity of habitat, habit, plant size, leaf type, flower and fruit morphology, and most species are narrowly distributed in isolated habitats that are subject to negative disturbances from climate change, as well as agricultural and industrial activities. Although the conservation status for the majority of species has been evaluated using the standards of the International Union for Conservation of Nature, the results don't represent the truth in many species, and also about 11.5% of which are data-absent. In addition, illegal collection and over-harvesting of wild begonias for ornamental or medicinal use has increased due to the rapid development of internet commerce. Far more often than predicted, these species should be categorized as rare and endangered and require immediate protection. Ex situ conservation of Chinese begonias started in 1995 and over 60% of the total species have been so far introduced into cultivation by several major botanical gardens in China. However, only few research institutions, limited funds and human resources have been involved in Begonia conservation; moreover, no project has conducted reintroduction. Therefore, more conservation-based work remains to be done. Improved conservation of Chinese begonias in the future depends on further field survey, an improved understanding of population diversity, and integrative approaches, including in situ and ex situ conservation, seed banking, and plant reintroduction. Speciestargeted conservation zones should be established for endangered species excluded from the existing nature reserves. Additionally, laws pertaining to plant protection should be extended to prevent the illegal collection and transaction of wild plants, particularly for those species with unique habitats and small populations.     

Local scale prioritization of cost-efficient protection within the National Park Thy

This study applied MARXAN to identify cost-efficient areas for biodiversity protection, within the Thy National Park in Denmark. Public authorities have requested a more systematic approach to managing public land, which identifies cost-effective solutions and potential trade-offs between economic cost and biodiversity benefits. The aim of this study was to support the local management staff in setting conservation targets and prioritizing their management efforts. This was addressed through the creation of two primary scenarios: i) applying uniform conservation targets to all biodiversity features, and ii) heterogeneous targets addressing various degrees of conservation importance. Four sub-scenarios were established for each primary scenario to investigate the implications of various conservation targets on conservation cost. Local data on red-listed species and habitat types were used to assess biodiversity benefits. Detailed cost estimates of required conservation actions were included. The results indicated that scenarios with uniform conservation targets provided more flexible networks of protected areas but contributed less to target achievement and a smaller share of selected planning units overlapped with current protected areas. Applying heterogeneous targets based on threat status resulted in a higher degree of target achievement and compactness, but provided less flexible networks. However, these networks may be more suitable for efficient management due to a higher level of clustering and spatial overlap with threatened species distributions.     

Achieving Target 2 of the Global Strategy for Plant Conservation: building a preliminary assessment of vascular plant species using data from herbarium specimens

The Global Strategy for Plant Conservation calls for a preliminary assessment of the conservation status of all known plant species by the year 2010. To date insufficient progress has been made on meeting this target. New efforts to develop a preliminary list beyond using the full IUCN criteria in plant assessments are needed. Here we present an algorithm that provides a preliminary assessment of the conservation status of plant species using data from herbarium specimens. We use Hawaiian specimen data from the United States National Herbarium to calibrate the parameters of the algorithm and then use specimen data from the Arecaceae, Commelinaceae, Gesneriaceae and Heliconiaceae as examples of the application of the algorithm. The algorithm was calibrated to insure 95% accuracy in placing the Hawaiian plant species into previously and independently determined threatened categories. Our results indicate that 28% of the Hawaiian taxa, 27% of the species of Arecaceae, 45% of the species of Commelinaceae, 32% of the species of Gesneriaceae, and 35% of the species of Heliconiaceae are Not Threatened and will not need any further evaluation for the preliminary assessment. Species identified here as Potentially Extinct and Potentially Threatened can be further assessed by additional herbarium material and/or conservation specialists for final evaluation using other assessment strategies (e.g., regional and national lists, taxonomic expert assessment, etc.).     

注意植物迁地保护中的遗传风险

稀有濒危植物迁地保护的长期目标之一就是要保护物种的遗传多样性和进化潜力。介绍了稀有濒危植物在植物园迁地保护过程中存在的一系列遗传风险。由于引种或取样的不足,容易导致被保存的物种缺乏足够的遗传代表性;盲目的引种、不合理的定植以及材料的来源不清则会导致稀有濒危植物的遗传混杂、近交衰退或杂交衰退;人为选择和生长环境的改变也容易造成濒危物种对迁地保护的遗传适应。在实际的迁地保护工作中,这些遗传风险往往被忽视。植物迁地保护中遗传风险将严重影响稀有濒危物种的回归和恢复。植物园应当重视濒危植物的遗传管理,以降低或避免迁地保护中的遗传风险。Abstract: Conserving genetic diversity of rare and endangered species and their evolutionary potential is one of the long-term goals of ex-situ conservation. Some potential genetic risks in ex-situ conservation in botanical gardens are presented. The preserved species may lack genetic representativity because of poor sampling. Inappropriate plantations, inadequate records and unclear kinships jeopardize endangered species to genetic confusion, inbreeding depression or outbreeding depression. Artificial selection and habitat conversion also potentially result endangered plants in adapting to ex-situ conservation, which had been usually overlooked. All the genetic risks can decrease the success of reintroduction and recovery. Therefore, appropriate genetic management should be carried out in botanical gardens to decrease or avoid genetic risks in ex-situ conservation.     

Securing a future for China's plant biodiversity through an integrated conservation approach

The severely threatened Chinese flora urgently needs a new, well adapted to China and properly formulated conservation strategy. The present review provides a detailed conservation methodology that complements previously described guidelines for preservation of plant species with extremely small populations (PSESP) in China. This review adds to the above concept in several aspects, making it relevant to all threatened Chinese plant species. The proposed integral conservation strategy has the following crucial components: -ecoregional basis for conservation planning and implementation; -a unified scoring system that is used in regional systematic planning for reserve design, monitoring and assessment of efficiency of a reserve network, and creation of seed banks and living collections; -a focus on population demography and the presence of naturally occurring regeneration as the key criteria for defining the conservation status of a species and the appropriate major focus of the species recovery plan; -creation of multi-species living collections that preserve species genetic variation and provide material for in situ actions; -experimental translocation of threatened species into multiple locations within and outside their known range. Adopting and implementing these strategies successfully and more fully in China requires that the country changes PA legislation and improves PA management, the National Science Foundation of China (NSFC) re-prioritizes the type of research that receives research funds, and local scientists improve their approach toward information sharing.     

Rare, Fragile Species, Small Populations, and the Dilemma of Collections

Considerable sums of money are aimed at biodiversity conservation programs at present, and although collection of specimens is necessary for the advancement of taxonomy and systematics, we detected a dilemma between conservation and collection of rare species with small populations. Collecting may act synergistically with other factors to increase the risk of, or even drive species to extinction. We present some examples we believe show the conflict between collecting rare species with a small population and the conservation programs for those species. We also stress the need to review the Minimum Viable Population Size concept as it can be used as a justification for collecting small, rare, and declining population species.     

A proposal for the conservation of the family Cucurbitaceae in Mexico

The pantropical Cucurbitaceae is one of the most important families ofvascular plants. The family includes 118 genera and 825 species, and Mexicois one of its most important centers of diversity, with 34 genera and 141species and subspecific taxa, including 13 cultivated ones. Five genera and 70taxa are endemic to the country. Some Mexican and Latin American wild speciesare close relatives of important crops, and others are employed as food ormedicine. Accordingly, in countries like Mexico the conservation of members ofthis family should be a priority. In this paper a list of members ofCucurbitaceae occurring in Mexico and their distribution patterns at state levelare discussed. Using cluster strategies, the states were classified according totheir floristic similarities. Hotspots of total diversity and endemismsat state level are identified, in order to discuss their role in futureconservation strategies. Iterative methods applied by conservation biology todetermine the best places for conservation are used to identify hierarchicallythe most important states that merit to be considered in this goal. Resultsindicate that implementing conservation strategies in half of the states wouldallow the protection of all the diversity found in the country, especially theendemisms. The combination of the results provided by the different methods isalso discussed as a possibly more efficient way to propose conservationstrategies for important species of the family.     

保护生物学一新分支学科——保护遗传学

研究人类对生物多样性的影响以及防止物种灭绝是保护生物学的两个主要目的。随着环境日益恶化、分子遗传学的迅速发展以及保护生物学和分子遗传学的不为民相互渗透,和产生了一全新的分支学科－－保护遗传学。保护遗传学是保护生物学研究中的一个核心部分,主要研究濒危物种的遗传多样性和保护物种的进化潜力。目前保护遗传学已成为国际上的一个研究热点,但在我国才刚刚起步,为此,本文就保护,遗传学的产生和发展及其研究内容和意义作一简要介绍,以推动我国在该方面的研究。     

植物园发展战略研究

本文包括 (1)正确认识世界植物园发展的经验和 (2 )我国植物园发展的战略。阐述世界植物园发展的源、流、兴、衰和各国植物园之间因时而异的主、辅、唱、和关系。提出我国植物园新世纪战略目标和综合发展战略 ,认为万种药用植物的迁地保护和栽培化 ,以及城市植物环境的构建可以作为研究的重点