Visitor behavior in zoos: A review

Abstract

Visitors are integral components of zoological parks and their importance has led to a research area devoted to understanding the people–zoo relationship. This paper reviews, and provides a point of entry into, the literature relating to visitor research in zoos. The field emerged relatively recently and is diverse and interdisciplinary (it shares common ground with sociology, education, psychology, zoology, and other academic disciplines). Several areas can be identified in the literature (audience analysis, circulation and orientation, exhibit evaluation, and interactions with animals), and these areas have revealed visitors' demographic and behavioral characteristics, people's behavioral responses to endogenous and exogenous factors, the impact of exhibit design, and visitors' movements around zoos. Limitations of existing work include independence between research areas, lack of international studies, limited generalizability of results, and the minority status of the field. Therefore, suggestions for future work include integrating different research areas, more research from outside Europe and America, and increased interaction within the visitor research community.     

Visitor Behaviors and Perceptions of Jaguar Activities

ABSTRACT

Zoo animals serve an important function in helping educate the public about their conservation needs. Despite this important function, little is understood about how visitors perceive different zoo exhibits and the animals that reside within them. In the present study, the behaviors displayed by two jaguars located at the Woodland Park Zoo were correlated with visitor behaviors and perceptions. Overall, visitors perceived their enjoyment to be lower when a jaguar was out of sight and rated the behavioral welfare of the jaguar to be lower when it was engaged in stereotypic behaviors. In addition, visitors who described a jaguar's behavior as stereotypic were significantly more likely to give lower ratings than those who perceived the jaguar to be active. It is suggested that by understanding how visitors perceive exhibited animals, zoos can address these perceptions in order to create more positive experiences for their visitors.     

Human–Ape Interactions in a Zoo Setting: Gorillas and Orangutans Modify Their Behavior Depending upon Human Familiarity

Understanding how human presence influences animal behavior, specifically the behavior of nonhuman primates, has important implications for methodology in cognitive and behavioral studies, for our understanding of human–animal relationships and for animal welfare in captive settings. Conducted in the San Diego Zoo, this study partially replicates an existing study on human–animal relationships, which focused on familiarity effects on the human-directed behavior of great apes residing in the Toronto Zoo. Such a replication in a new location and with different individuals is necessary to expand sample size and to better understand how ontogeny and living environment influence human-directed ape behavior. All-occurrence sampling of human-directed behavior was used to gather data on two gorilla groups and one orangutan group, all housed at the San Diego Zoo. The aim was to compare ape-initiated behaviors toward zoo staff with apeinitiated visitor-directed behavior, in accordance with predictions of the Human–Animal Relationship (HAR) model. Overall, human-directed behaviors were more frequent toward visitors than toward staff, mainly caused by increased visitor-directed visual behavior, specifically brief glances. Given that visual monitoring has been seen as fearful behavior, potentially related to predator monitoring, this would confirm the expectation that lack of familiarity will lead to increased visual vigilance. However, the visitor-directed visual behaviors may not be antagonistic or fearful. Considering the specific behaviors and exhibit designs, curiosity may be an equally likely explanation in this context. Aiming to also understand whether these groups exhibited species differences in human-directed behavior, it was found that orangutans engaged in more affiliative behavior overall than gorillas. Comparing our results with the previous study, we conclude that while effects of familiarity are present, those effects are modulated by both individual ontogeny and exhibit design. While the HAR model is partially supported, additional factors may need to be included to fully interpret the observed behavior. Additional research is needed to further understand the effects of species, sex, and ontogeny on the predictions of the HAR model.     

Visitor Perceptions of Nature Conservation at Helsinki Zoo

These days zoos often claim that their main objective is the promotion of nature conservation and that they strive to educate their visitors about animals and nature conservation. But how do zoo visitors themselves perceive this emphasis on conservation education? In order to determine how Helsinki Zoo visitors perceive nature conservation during their visit, we undertook a qualitative analysis of 75 structured situational interviews and five autoethnographical visits. Our results show that there was only a limited understanding of nature conservation among the zoo visitors. Their perception follows the typical framing of nature conservation in zoos: conservation projects that embrace captive breeding, in-situ conservation collaboration, and the reintroduction of those species. Moreover, in the Helsinki Zoo case these perceptions may have been influenced by the fact that the zoo did not give concrete advice on how the visitors themselves can contribute to conservation, except in terms of donating money. Framing nature conservation in such ways distances it from visitors’ everyday lives.     

Pond Use by Captive African Penguins (Spheniscus demersus) in an Immersive Exhibit Adjacent to Human Bathers

Nonhuman animals in zoos are exposed to a continuous human presence, which affects their behaviors and welfare. However, little is known about what role the “visitor effect” has on penguins in captivity. The African penguin (Spheniscus demersus) is an endangered species commonly housed in zoos worldwide. The aim of this study was to evaluate whether the abundance of human bathers could reduce the average time spent in the water of a colony of African penguins housed in an exhibit where their pond habitat was adjacent to a swimming pool. Observations were carried out on 7 penguins in the summer of 2009. Data were collected during 3 time periods (Time 1 [T1] = opening of the swimming season, Time 2 [T2] = core of the season, Time 3 [T3] = late season) of 14 days each. The human disturbance caused by bathers strongly reduced the pond use by penguins at T1 and T2, especially when there were large numbers of visitors. However, at T3, we observed that the overall use of the pond by penguins increased, and the average duration of their diving was no longer dependent on the number of visitors.     

Visitor Perceptions of Captive,Endangered Barbary Macaques (Macaca sylvanus) Used as Photo Props in Jemaa El Fna Square,Marrakech, Morocco

ABSTRACT

Visitors to Jemaa El Fna Square can pay to have their photograph taken with Barbary macaques. Our aim was to characterize visitors’ perceptions of such photo props, enabling demand-reducing interventions to be targeted appropriately and destination managers to maintain or enhance the visitor experience. Visitors to Jemaa El Fna (n = 513) were surveyed using a 25-item questionnaire including closed and open questions. Most visitors (88%) neither intended to use macaque photo props nor did; 7% either intended to or did use photo props; while 5% both used photo props and had intended to do so. Moroccans were more likely than foreigners to use macaque photo props or intend to do so. Among international visitors, those who had their photo taken or intended to were younger, with a lower level of education and lower income than those who neither had their photo taken nor intended to. Visitors who did not use photo props pitied the animals’ treatment, disapproved of captivity or exploitation, had concerns over hygiene or safety, and disliked trader harassment. Visitors who did use photo props valued novelty and contact with the animal, although half of them also described negative experiences including trader harassment and animal mistreatment. While 16% felt the presence of macaques makes Marrakech lively and interesting, 40% recognized risks to health and safety, and 57% thought Marrakech would be a better place without macaque photo props. Although 66% agreed the practice should be illegal, 80% were unaware that it is illegal. Only 25% correctly identified the Barbary macaque as endangered. Macaque photo props undermine current conservation objectives and legislation, contribute to Disneyfication of macaques, and may threaten the image of the destination; however, their appeal to a minority of visitors indicates a desire to interact with animals, which visitor education might divert toward more responsible tourism.     

Measuring the Strength of Human–Animal Bonds in Zoos

Repeated interactions within individual human and animal dyads can lead to the establishment of human–animal relationships (HARs), which may vary in quality from good to bad, defined in terms of the positivity (e.g., friendly contact, play) or negativity (e.g., aggression) of the interactions on which they are based. Particularly good HARs can be regarded as Human– Animal Bonds (HABs) if they are reciprocal and promote wellbeing in both parties. Although there is extensive evidence of the effects of HARs in agricultural animals and HABs in companion animals, there has been less investigation of these relationships in zoos, even though the development of HARs/HABs between zoo animals and their keepers could have important consequences for the welfare of both. Here we apply a modified version of the Lexington Attachment to Pets Scale (LAPS) in a zoo setting to quantify the strength of attachment of a sample of 22 keepers to the animals in their care at the zoo (ZA), in comparison with their attachment to their companion animals at home (PA). Results showed that mean PA scores (47.54 ± 3.6) were significantly higher than mean ZA scores (32.89 ± 2.6; t = –5.16, df = 13, p < 0.001), indicating stronger attachment to the companion animals. PA scores were lower in keepers who thought it inappropriate to have a bond with a zoo animal, compared with those who deemed it appropriate. Thus, HABs do appear to occur in the zoo context, though they are weaker than those developed in the home. This work also shows that a modified LAPS questionnaire is a suitable instrument for further investigation of HABs in zoos.     

A view from the bridge: Subjectivity,embodiment and animal minds

Abstract

In contemporary discussions of animal mind the difficulty of studying the nature of private, subjective awareness in animals is often seen as a barrier to a fuller understanding of animal experience. Relatively little work has focused on more recent psychological accounts of mind that emphasize its extended, embodied and social aspects. We examine some of the main conceptual difficulties in this area, and then consider a number of more embodied approaches. We suggest that a consideration of the nature of the animal-human relationship is crucial to a consideration of animal awareness.     

Experimentally increased noise levels change spatial and singing behaviour

The reasons why animal populations decline in response to anthropogenic noise are still poorly understood. To understand how populations are affected by noise, we must understand how individuals are affected by noise. By modifying the acoustic environment experimentally, we studied the potential relationship between noise levels and both spatial and singing behaviour in the European robin (Erithacus rubecula). We found that with increasing noise levels, males were more likely to move away from the noise source and changed their singing behaviour. Our results provide the first experimental evidence in a free ranging species, that not merely the presence of noise causes changes in behaviour and distribution, but that the level of noise pollution plays a crucial role as well. Our results have important implications for estimating the impact of infrastructure which differs in the level of noise produced. Thus, governmental planning bodies should not only consider the physical effect on the landscape when assessing the impact of new infrastructure, but also the noise levels emitted, which may reduce the loss of suitable habitats available for animals.     

Children Love Their Pets: Do Relationships between Children and Pets Co-vary with Taxonomic Order,Gender, and Age?

Generally, children love their pets. However, a deeper insight into the beneficial effects of pets on the physical, psychological, and social wellbeing and development of children is needed. This study investigated whether children have more intense relationships with animals which are behaviorally similar to humans (according to the scala naturae), and whether the relationship patterns between 11- to 14-year-old children (n = 72) and their pets differ from those in prepubescent children, between 6 and 10 years of age (n = 84). We also investigated whether pet-relationship quality is associated with children’s age, gender, and number of siblings. Data about individual bonding type and attachment quality between the children and their pet were collected using a questionnaire. The results indicate that the younger children’s relationships clearly co-varied with taxonomic order of the pet. In contrast, 11- to 14-year-old children reported similarly high scores of attachment with their mouse or iguana as with their dog or cat, and the relationship patterns did not co-vary with taxonomic order. Gender effects on relationship quality were found in both age groups; especially girls reported intense relationships with their pets. In addition to gender, children without siblings had stronger attachment to their pet than children who had siblings. Our data suggest that young children develop high-quality relationships with pets, particularly those which are taxonomically closely related, such as dogs and cats, and less so with other pet species, such as birds or fish. Older children were also able to strongly attach to other pet species. We argue that mental relationship representations change during puberty and that older (11- to 14-year-old) children may no longer make attachments to pets based on them being behaviorally similar to people.     

The Relationship between Empathy,Perception of Pain and Attitudes toward Pets among Norwegian Dog Owners

ABSTRACT

Anthropomorphism, attachment level, and belief in animal mind, as well as owners' level of empathy and attitudes toward their pets, are some of the factors that affect human–animal interactions. Owners' ability to identify painful conditions in their pets may have important consequences for the welfare of these animals. In addition to characterizing the typical Norwegian dog owner, the aim of this work was to study the relationship between empathy, attitudes, and perceived animal pain. A sample of 3,413 dog owners in Norway received an internet-based questionnaire (QuestBack?), to which1896 responded. The questionnaire included four parts: demographics, the Pet Attitude Scale (PAS), the Animal Empathy Scale (AES), and the Pain Assessment Instrument (PAI). For the PAI, participants were presented with 17 photos, showing dogs experiencing painful situations of varying degrees, and were asked to rate the level of pain they believed each animal was enduring, using a Visual Analogue Scale (VAS). Results showed that Norwegian dog owners had very high levels of animal-directed empathy and equally high levels of positive attitudes toward pets. There were differences based on gender, childhood pet keeping, income and education. Differences were also found rooted in owners' use of their dog, whether kept for companionship or hunting, as well as household size, an indication of human social relations. A strong, positive correlation (r = 0.58) was found between animal-directed empathy and positive attitudes toward pets. Empathy was found to be the best predictor of how people rated pain in dogs. The correlations were, however, moderate, indicating that other processes are also involved when observing animals in pain.