Proliferation of multinucleate cells with unbalanced nuclei

When onion root meristems are treated with gamma-hexachlorocyclohexane the anaphase chromatids are distributed in discrete unbalanced groups and subsequent inhibition of cytokinesis in these cells produced a synchronous population of viable multinucleate cells with two, three of four aneuploid nuclei. When we compare the duration of G1, S and G2 periods in diploid cells with that obtained for multinucleate cells in the present study it seems clear that the differences, if they occur, are negligible. These results are consistent with the hypothesis that the cell mass/genome ratio can play an essential role in controlling cycle rate and that most of the genic requirements for interphase development must complement between the nuclei sharing a common cytoplasm, even though some factor inside every nucleus appears to be required for replicative capacity to be effective.     

DNA catenations that link sister chromatids until the onset of anaphase are maintained by a checkpoint mechanism

Treatment of Allium cepa meristematic cells in metaphase with the topoisomerase II inhibitor ICRF-193, results in bridging of the sister chromatids at anaphase. Separation of the sisters in experimentally generated acentric chromosomal fragments was also inhibited by ICRF-193, indicating that some non-centromeric catenations also persist in metaphase chromosomes. Thus, catenations must be resolved by DNA topoisomerase II at the metaphase-to-anaphase transition to allow segregation of sisters. A passive mechanism could maintain catenations holding sisters until the onset of anaphase. At this point the opposite tension exerted on sister chromatids could render the decatenation reaction physically more favorable than catenation. But this possibility was dismissed as acentric chromosome fragments were able to separate their sister chromatids at anaphase. A timing mechanism (a common trigger for two processes taking different times to be completed) could passively couple the resolution of the last remaining catenations to the moment of anaphase onset. This possibility was also discarded as cells arrested in metaphase with microtubule-destabilising drugs still displayed anaphase bridges when released in the presence of ICRF-193. It is possible that a checkpoint mechanism prevents the release of the last catenations linking sisters until the onset of anaphase. To test whether cells are competent to fully resolve catenations before anaphase onset, we generated multinucleate plant cells. In this system, the nuclei within a single multinucleate cell displayed differences in chromosome condensation at metaphase, but initiated anaphase synchronously. When multinucleates were treated with ICRF-193 at the metaphase-toanaphase transition, tangled and untangled anaphases were observed within the same cell. This can only occur if cells are competent to disentangle sister chromatids before the onset of anaphase, but are prevented from doing so by a checkpoint mechanism.     

Role of multipolar mitoses in the proliferation of multinucleate cells induced by cytochalasin B

A prolonged action of cytochalasin B results in the formation of numerous multipolar mitoses (26%) in Chinese hamster cell cultures. The transition to multipolar mitoses in the presence of cytochalasin B is not accompanied by K-mitotic delay. It is shown that a multipolar mitosis without cytoplasmic division is one of the main causes of multinucleation development in cytochalasin B-treated cultures. After stopping the drug action the cytochalasin B-induced multinucleate cells continue to divide by multipolar mitosis. In this case it completes with cytokinesis and, probably, leads to a decrease in the number of nuclei per cell. The origin of multipolar mitotic apparatus after the action of cytochalasin B is discussed in addition to the role of multipolar mitosis in formation and proliferation of multinucleate cells.     

Taxol suppresses dynamics of individual microtubules in living human tumor cells

Microtubules are intrinsically dynamic polymers, and their dynamics play a crucial role in mitotic spindle assembly, the mitotic checkpoint, and chromosome movement. We hypothesized that, in living cells, suppression of microtubule dynamics is responsible for the ability of taxol to inhibit mitotic progression and cell proliferation. Using quantitative fluorescence video microscopy, we examined the effects of taxol (30-100 nM) on the dynamics of individual microtubules in two living human tumor cell lines: Caov-3 ovarian adenocarcinoma cells and A-498 kidney carcinoma cells. Taxol accumulated more in Caov-3 cells than in A-498 cells. At equivalent intracellular taxol concentrations, dynamic instability was inhibited similarly in the two cell lines. Microtubule shortening rates were inhibited in Caov-3 cells and in A-498 cells by 32 and 26%, growing rates were inhibited by 24 and 18%, and dynamicity was inhibited by 31 and 63%, respectively. All mitotic spindles were abnormal, and many interphase cells became multinucleate (Caov-3, 30%; A-498, 58%). Taxol blocked cell cycle progress at the metaphase/anaphase transition and inhibited cell proliferation. The results indicate that suppression of microtubule dynamics by taxol deleteriously affects the ability of cancer cells to properly assemble a mitotic spindle, pass the metaphase/anaphase checkpoint, and produce progeny.     

A 210 kDa nuclear matrix protein is a functional part of the mitotic spindle; a microinjection study using SPN monoclonal antibodies.

Six monoclonal antibodies identify a 210 kDa polypeptide which shows a cell cycle specific redistribution from the nucleus to the mitotic spindle. In interphase cells this polypeptide was localized in the nucleus and behaved during differential cell extraction as a component of the nuclear matrix. It accumulated in the centrosome region at prophase, in the pole regions of the mitotic spindle at metaphase and in crescents at the poles in anaphase, and reassociated with the nuclei as they reformed in telophase. Due to its staining pattern we call the protein the Spindle Pole-Nucleus (SPN) antigen. The localization of SPN antigen during mitosis was dependent on the integrity of the spindle since treatment of cells with nocodazole resulted in the dispersal of SPN antigen into many small foci which acted as microtubule organizing centres when the drug was removed. The SPN antigen was present in nuclei and mitotic spindles of all human and mammalian cell lines and tissues so far tested. When microinjected into the cytoplasm or nuclei of HeLa cells, one antibody caused a block in mitosis. Total cell number remained constant or decreased slightly after 24 h. At this time, about half the cells were arrested in a prometaphase-like state and revealed aberrant spindles. Many other cells were multinucleate. These results show that the SPN antigen is a protein associated with mitotic spindle microtubules which has to function correctly for the cell to complete mitosis.     

Study of mitosis in root-tip cells ofTriticum turgidum treated with the DNA-intercalating agent ethidium bromide

Summary This work examines mitosis in root-tip cells ofTriticum turgidum treated with the RNA synthesis inhibitor ethidium bromide, using tubulin immunolabeling and electron microscopy. The following aberrations were observed in ethidium bromideaffected cells: (1) incomplete chromatin condensation and nuclear-envelope breakdown; (2) delay of preprophase microtubule band maturation; (3) preprophase microtubule band assembly in cells displaying an interphase appearance of the nucleus; (4) prevention of the prophase spindle formation, caused by inhibition of perinuclear microtubule (Mt) formation and/or inability of the perinuclear Mts to assume bipolarity; (5) organization of an atypical metaphase spindle which is unable to arrange the chromosomes on the equatorial plane; (6) formation of an atypical perinuclear metaphase spindle in cells in which nuclear-envelope breakdown has been almost completely inhibited; (7) inhibition of the anaphase spindle formation as well as of anaphase chromosome movement; (8) disorganization of the atypical mitotic spindle during transition from mitosis to cytokinesis. The observations favor the following hypotheses. Nucleation of prophase spindle Mts is related to the mechanism that causes nuclear-envelope breakdown. The mitotic poles lack Mtnucleating and -organizing properties, and their function does not account for prophase and metaphase spindle assembly. The organization of the prophase spindle is not a prerequisite for the formation of the metaphase spindle; the metaphase spindle seems to be formed de novo by Mts nucleated on the nuclear envelope and/or in the immediate vicinity of chromosomes.Abbreviations 5-AU 5-aminouracil - EB ethidium bromide - EM electron microscopy - k-Mt kinetochore microtubule - Mt microtubule - MTOC microtubule-organizing center - NE nuclear envelope - NEB nuclear-envelope breakdown - PPB preprophase band of microtubules     

Inter- and intrachromosomal asynchrony of cell division cycle events in root meristem cells of Allium cepa: possible connection with gradient of cyclin B-like proteins

Alternate treatments of Allium cepa root meristems with hydroxyurea (HU) and caffeine give rise to extremely large and highly elongated cells with atypical images of mitotic divisions, including internuclear asynchrony and an unknown type of interchromosomal asynchrony observed during metaphase-to-anaphase transition. Another type of asynchrony that cannot depend solely on the increased length of cells was observed following long-term incubation of roots with HU. This kind of treatment revealed both cell nuclei entering premature mitosis and, for the first time, an uncommon form of mitotic abnormality manifested in a gradual condensation of chromatin (spanning from interphase to prometaphase). Immunocytochemical study of polykaryotic cells using anti-β tubulin antibodies revealed severe perturbations in the microtubular organization of preprophase bands. Quantitative immunofluorescence measurements of the control cells indicate that the level of cyclin B-like proteins reaches the maximum at the G2 to metaphase transition and then becomes reduced during later stages of mitosis. After long-term incubation with low doses of HU, the amount of cyclin B-like proteins considerably increases, and a significant number of elongated cells show gradients of these proteins spread along successive regions of the perinuclear cytoplasm. It is suggested that there may be a direct link between the effects of HU-mediated deceleration of S- and G2-phases and an enhanced concentration of cyclin B-like proteins. In consequence, the activation of cyclin B-CDK complexes gives rise to an abnormal pattern of premature mitotic chromosome condensation with biphasic nuclear structures having one part of chromatin decondensed, and the other part condensed.     

Nuclear and microtubular cycles in heterophasic multinuclearTriticum root-tip cells induced by caffeine

Summary Nuclear and microtubular cycles were studied in large heterophasic multinuclear cells induced in root tips ofTriticum turgidum by caffeine treatment. Multinuclear cells and cells with polyploid nuclei exhibited various configurations of multiple and complex preprophase microtubule (Mt) bands (PPBs), including helical ones. The developmental stages of PPBs in some heterophasic cells did not comply with the cell cycle stages of the associated nuclei, a fact indicating that these events are not directly controlled by the associated nuclei. The heterophasic cells exhibited asynchronous nuclei at different stages of mitosis. In cells displaying prophase and interphase nuclei, the prophase spindle was either absent or developed around both of them or developed around the prophase nuclei earlier than around the interphase ones. During prometaphase-metaphase of the advanced nuclei the lagging interphase nuclei were induced to form prematurely condensed chromosomes (PCCs) along with spindle formation around them. These observations suggest that the mitotic transition in heterophasic cells is delayed but is ultimately achieved due to the effect of the advanced nuclei, which induces a premature mitotic entry of the lagging nuclei. Although kinetochore Mt bundles were found associated with PCCs, their metaphase and anaphase spindles were abnormal resulting in abnormal or abortive anaphases. In some heterophasic cells, metaphase-anaphase transition did not take place simultaneously in different chromosome groups, signifying that the cells do not exit from the mitotic state after anaphase initiation of the advanced nuclei. Asynchronous pace of mitosis of different chromosome groups was also observed during anaphase and telophase. Implications of these observations in understanding plant cell cycle regulation are discussed.Abbreviations cdk cyclin dependent kinase - Mt microtubule - PCC prematurely condensed chromosome - PPB preprophase band     

Heterogeneity in mitochondrial morphology and membrane potential is independent of the nuclear division cycle in multinucleate fungal cells

In the multinucleate filamentous fungus Ashbya gossypii, nuclei divide asynchronously in a common cytoplasm. We hypothesize that the division cycle machinery has a limited zone of influence in the cytoplasm to promote nuclear autonomy. Mitochondria in cultured mammalian cells undergo cell cycle-specific changes in morphology and membrane potential and therefore can serve as a reporter of the cell cycle state of the cytoplasm. To evaluate if the cell cycle state of nuclei in A. gossypii can influence the adjacent cytoplasm, we tested whether local mitochondrial morphology and membrane potential in A. gossypii are associated with the division state of a nearby nucleus. We found that mitochondria exhibit substantial heterogeneity in both morphology and membrane potential within a single multinucleated cell. Notably, differences in mitochondrial morphology or potential are not associated with a specific nuclear division state. Heterokaryon mutants with a mixture of nuclei with deletions of and wild type for the mitochondrial fusion/fission genes DNM1 and FZO1 exhibit altered mitochondrial morphology and severe growth and sporulation defects. This dominant effect suggests that the gene products may be required locally near their expression site rather than diffusing widely in the cell. Our results demonstrate that mitochondrial dynamics are essential in these large syncytial cells, yet morphology and membrane potential are independent of nuclear cycle state.     

Asynchronous nuclear division cycles in multinucleated cells

Synchronous mitosis is common in multinucleated cells. We analyzed a unique asynchronous nuclear division cycle in a multinucleated filamentous fungus, Ashbya gossypii. Nuclear pedigree analysis and observation of GFP-labeled spindle pole bodies demonstrated that neighboring nuclei in A. gossypii cells are in different cell cycle stages despite close physical proximity. Neighboring nuclei did not differ significantly in their patterns of cyclin protein localization such that both G1 and mitotic cyclins were present regardless of cell cycle stage, suggesting that the complete destruction of cyclins is not occurring in this system. Indeed, the expression of mitotic cyclin lacking NH(2)-terminal destruction box sequences did not block cell cycle progression. Cells lacking AgSic1p, a predicted cyclin-dependent kinase (CDK) inhibitor, however, showed aberrant multipolar spindles and fragmented nuclei that are indicative of flawed mitoses. We hypothesize that the continuous cytoplasm in these cells promoted the evolution of a nuclear division cycle in which CDK inhibitors primarily control CDK activity rather than oscillating mitotic cyclin proteins.     

Microfilament bundles of F-actin inSpirogyra observed by fluorescence microscopy

Microfilament bundles (MFBs) of F-actin were observed by fluorescence microscopy in cells ofSpirogyra treated with rhodamine-phalloidin. Four types of MFBs could be recognized on the basis of locality and appearance: those dispersed in the cytoplasm near the cell surface; those beneath the plasma membrane running parallel to each other; those at the edges of the chloroplast; and those surrounding the nucleus. Each type exhibited a unique behavior during the cell cycle. Microfilament bundles dispersed in the cytoplasm came together at the middle of the cell to form a fibril ring at the mitotic prophase. The fibril ring decreased in diameter, causing the development of a furrow in the protoplast that progressed from the outside to the inside. After the completion of furrowing, the MFBs in the fibril ring dispersed beneath the plasma membrane. Microfilament bundles surrounding the nucleus formed a net-like cage which became invisible at the mitotic anaphase, while MFBs seen at the chloroplast edges persisted there during the cell cycle without changing their position. Parallel MFBs running perpendicular to the long axis of the cell were seen at all stages in the cell cycle.Abbreviations MF microfilament - MFB microfilament bundle - MT microtubule     

Events associated with the initiation of mitosis in fused multinucleate HeLa cells

Large multinucleate (LMN) HeLa cells with more than 10–50 nuclei were produced by random fusion with polyethylene glycol. The number of nuclei in a particular stage of the cell cycle at the time of fusion was proportionate to the duration of the phase relative to the total cell cycle. The fused cells did not gain generation time. Interaction of various nuclei in these cells has been observed. The nuclei initially belonging to the G1-or S-phase required a much longer time to complete DNA synthesis than in mononucleate cells. Some of the cells reached mitosis 15 h after fusion, whereas others required 24 h. The cells dividing early, contained a larger number of initially early G1-phase nuclei than those cells dividing late. The former very often showed prematurely condensed chromosome (PCC) groups. In cells with a large number of advanced nuclei the few less advanced nuclei could enter mitosis prematurely. On the other hand, the cells having a large number of nuclei belonging initially to late S-or G2-phase took longer to reach mitosis. These nuclei have been taken out of the normal sequence and therefore failed to synthesize the mitotic factors and depended on others to supply them. Therefore the cells as a whole required a longer period to enter mitosis. Although the nuclei became synchronized at metaphase, the cells revealed a gradation in prophase progression in the different nuclei. At the ultrastructural level the effect of advanced nuclei on the less advanced ones was evident with respect to chromosome condensation and nuclear envelope breakdown. Less advanced nuclei trapped among advanced nuclei showed PCC and nuclear envelope breakdown prematurely, whereas mitotic nuclei near interphase or early prophase nuclei retained their nuclear envelopes for a much longer time. PCC is closely related to premature breakdown of the nuclear envelope. Our observations clearly indicate that chromosome condensation and nuclear envelope breakdown are two distinct events. Kinetochores with attached microtubules could be observed on prematurely condensed chromosomes. Kinetochores of fully condensed chromosomes often failed to become connected to spindle elements. This indicates that the formation of a functional spindle is distinct from the other events and may depend on different factors.     

The microtubule cycle during successive mitotic waves in the syncytial female gametophyte of ginkgo

Plant morphogenesis is driven by a surprising number of microtubule arrays. The four arrays of vegetative tissues are hoop-like cortical, preprophase band (PPB), spindle, and phragmoplast. When syncytia occur during the reproductive phase of the plant life cycle, neither hoop-like corticals nor PPBs are present, and functional phragmoplasts fail to form following the proliferative mitoses that give rise to the multinucleate cytoplasm. Instead, the interphase microtubules are radial microtubule systems (RMSs) that emanate from the nuclei. These RMSs organize the cytoplasm into nascent cells and ultimately trigger phragmoplast formation at their boundaries. During investigations of the syncytial stage that initiates development of the female gametophyte in gymnosperms, we studied the large (3–4 mm) female gametophyte of Ginkgo biloba. Here we describe the microtubule cycle correlated with successive mitotic waves and discuss the importance of this system in studying the acentrosomal nucleation and organization of cycling microtubule arrays. Electronic Publication     

Distribution of DNA polymerase alpha during nuclear division cycles in Drosophila melanogaster embryo.

An immunocytochemical method using a specific monoclonal antibody was employed to detect DNA polymerase alpha in Drosophila melanogaster embryos during the first 13 nuclear division cycles after fertilization. The anti-DNA polymerase alpha antibody stained the ooplasm of the unfertilized egg, indicating that DNA polymerase alpha is maternally stored. Strong nuclear staining with the antibody over the weaker staining of the cytoplasm was observed at interphase throughout the 13 nuclear division cycles. The staining of the cytoplasmic regions surrounding the nucleus was much stronger than the other region of the syncytial cytoplasm until cycle 10. Although prophase nuclei were stained with the antibody, metaphase chromosomes were never stained throughout the 13 cycles. The chromosomal (nuclear) staining reappeared at anaphase until cycle 11 and at telophase in later cycles. The staining of the syncytial cytoplasm except for the cortical region became faint by cycle 13, suggesting the consumption of the maternal storage by this cycle. These results suggest that DNA polymerase alpha dissociates from chromosomes at the beginning of metaphase; then in later mitotic phases, it is transported from the syncytial cytoplasm into nuclei to participate in formation of the active DNA replication enzyme complex.     

When the genome plays dice: circumvention of the spindle assembly checkpoint and near-random chromosome segregation in multipolar cancer cell mitoses

Background

Normal cell division is coordinated by a bipolar mitotic spindle, ensuring symmetrical segregation of chromosomes. Cancer cells, however, occasionally divide into three or more directions. Such multipolar mitoses have been proposed to generate genetic diversity and thereby contribute to clonal evolution. However, this notion has been little validated experimentally.

Principal Findings

Chromosome segregation and DNA content in daughter cells from multipolar mitoses were assessed by multiphoton cross sectioning and fluorescence in situ hybridization in cancer cells and non-neoplastic transformed cells. The DNA distribution resulting from multipolar cell division was found to be highly variable, with frequent nullisomies in the daughter cells. Time-lapse imaging of H2B/GFP-labelled multipolar mitoses revealed that the time from the initiation of metaphase to the beginning of anaphase was prolonged and that the metaphase plates often switched polarity several times before metaphase-anaphase transition. The multipolar metaphase-anaphase transition was accompanied by a normal reduction of cellular cyclin B levels, but typically occurred before completion of the normal separase activity cycle. Centromeric AURKB and MAD2 foci were observed frequently to remain on the centromeres of multipolar ana-telophase chromosomes, indicating that multipolar mitoses were able to circumvent the spindle assembly checkpoint with some sister chromatids remaining unseparated after anaphase. Accordingly, scoring the distribution of individual chromosomes in multipolar daughter nuclei revealed a high frequency of nondisjunction events, resulting in a near-binomial allotment of sister chromatids to the daughter cells.

Conclusion

The capability of multipolar mitoses to circumvent the spindle assembly checkpoint system typically results in a near-random distribution of chromosomes to daughter cells. Spindle multipolarity could thus be a highly efficient generator of genetically diverse minority clones in transformed cell populations.     

Variable pathways for developmental changes of mitosis and cytokinesis in Physarum polycephalum

The development of a uninucleate ameba into a multinucleate, syncytial plasmodium in myxomycetes involves a change from the open, astral mitosis of the ameba to the intranuclear, anastral mitosis of the plasmodium, and the omission of cytokinesis from the cell cycle. We describe immunofluorescence microscopic studies of the amebal-plasmodial transition (APT) in Physarum polycephalum. We demonstrate that the reorganization of mitotic spindles commences in uninucleate cells after commitment to plasmodium formation, is completed by the binucleate stage, and occurs via different routes in individual developing cells. Most uninucleate developing cells formed mitotic spindles characteristic either of amebae or of plasmodia. However, chimeric mitotic figures exhibiting features of both amebal and plasmodial mitoses, and a novel star microtubular array were also observed. The loss of the ameba-specific alpha 3-tubulin and the accumulation of the plasmodium-specific beta 2-tubulin isotypes during development were not sufficient to explain the changes in the organization of mitotic spindles. The majority of uninucleate developing cells undergoing astral mitoses (amebal and chimeric) exhibited cytokinetic furrows, whereas cells with the anastral plasmodial mitosis exhibited no furrows. Thus, the transition from astral to anastral mitosis during the APT could be sufficient for the omission of cytokinesis from the cell cycle. However, astral mitosis may not ensure cytokinesis: some cells undergoing amebal or chimeric mitosis contained unilateral cytokinetic furrows or no furrow at all. These cells would, most probably, fail to divide. We suggest that a uninucleate committed cell undergoing amebal or chimeric mitosis can either divide or else form a binucleate cell. In contrast, a uninucleate cell with a mitotic spindle of the plasmodial type gives rise only to a binucleate cells. Further, the decision to enter mitosis after commitment to the APT is independent of the developmental changes in the organization of the mitotic spindle and cytokinesis.     

LIGHT AND ELECTRON MICROSCOPIC STUDIES OF THE FUSION CELL IN ASTEROCOLAX GARDNERI SETCH. (RHODOPHYTA,CERAMIALES)12

The fusion cell in Asterocolax gardneri Setch, is a large, multinucleate, irregularly-shaped cell resulting from cytoplasmic fusions of haploid and diploid cells. Subsequent enlargement takes place by incorporating adjacent gonimoblast cells. The resultant cell consists of two parts—a central portion of isolated cytoplasm, surrounded by an electron dense cytoplasmic barrier, and the main component of the fusion cell cytoplasm surrounding the isolated cytoplasm. The fusion cell contains many nuclei, large quantities of floridean starch, endoplasmic reticulum, and vesicles, but few mitochondria, plastids and dictyosomes. The endoplasmic reticulum forms vesicles that apparently secrete large quantities of extracellular mucilage which surrounds the entire carposporophyte. The isolated cytoplasm also is multinucleate but lacks starch and a plasma membrane. Few plastids, ribosomes and mitochondria are found in this cytoplasm. However, numerous endoplasmic reticulum cisternae occur near the cytoplasmic barrier and they appear to secrete material for the barrier. In mature carposporophytes, all organelles in the isolated cytoplasm have degenerated.     

Arrangement of spindle apparatus in mitoses of different ploidy

In non-hypotonically treated mitoses from tissue cultures of Microtus agrestis, both the constitutive heterochromatin of the sex chromosomes and the spindle apparatus were stained by the Giemsa C-banding technique. By means of counting the heterochromatic chromosomes, we determined the cell ploidy and studied the number of centrioles and the spindle arrangement of diploid, triploid, tetraploid and octoploid mitoses. Diploid and triploid prophases contained 2 centrioles in most cases, tetraploid prophases 4, binucleate cells with 2 diploid nuclei likewise 4 and binucleate cells with 2 tetraploid nuclei 8 centrioles. Nearly 99% of diploid and triploid metaphases were bipolar. Of the tetraploid metaphases only 45% were bipolar, 29.5% tripolar, 7.5% quadripolar and 18% formed as a parallel mitosis. In all examined binucleate cells that had had an asynchronous DNA synthesis, a multipolar mitosis was found.     

Limited functional redundancy and oscillation of cyclins in multinucleated Ashbya gossypii fungal cells

Cyclin protein behavior has not been systematically investigated in multinucleated cells with asynchronous mitoses. Cyclins are canonical oscillating cell cycle proteins, but it is unclear how fluctuating protein gradients can be established in multinucleated cells where nuclei in different stages of the division cycle share the cytoplasm. Previous work in A. gossypii, a filamentous fungus in which nuclei divide asynchronously in a common cytoplasm, demonstrated that one G1 and one B-type cyclin do not fluctuate in abundance across the division cycle. We have undertaken a comprehensive analysis of all G1 and B-type cyclins in A. gossypii to determine whether any of the cyclins show periodic abundance across the cell cycle and to examine whether cyclins exhibit functional redundancy in such a cellular environment. We localized all G1 and B-type cyclins and notably found that only AgClb5/6p varies in subcellular localization during the division cycle. AgClb5/6p is lost from nuclei at the meta-anaphase transition in a D-box-dependent manner. These data demonstrate that efficient nuclear autonomous protein degradation can occur within multinucleated cells residing in a common cytoplasm. We have shown that three of the five cyclins in A. gossypii are essential genes, indicating that there is minimal functional redundancy in this multinucleated system. In addition, we have identified a cyclin, AgClb3/4p, that is essential only for sporulation. We propose that the cohabitation of different cyclins in nuclei has led to enhanced substrate specificity and limited functional redundancy within classes of cyclins in multinucleated cells.     

Phosphorylation of histone H3 serine 10 in early mouse embryos: Active phosphorylation at late S phase and differential effects of ZM447439 on first two embryonic mitoses

Cell division in mammalian cells is regulated by Aurora kinases. The activity of Aurora A is indispensable for correct function of centrosomes and proper spindle formation, while Aurora B for chromosome biorientation and separation. Aurora B is also responsible for the phosphorylation of histone H3 serine 10 (H3S10Ph) from G2 to metaphase. Data concerning the Aurora B activity and H3S10Ph in embryonic cells are limited to primordial and maturing oocytes and advanced pronuclei in zygotes. In the present study we have analyzed H3S10Ph in 1- and 2-cell mouse embryos. We show that H3S10 remains phosphorylated at anaphase and telophase of the second meiotic division, as well as during the anaphase and telophase of the first and second embryonic mitoses. At late G1 H3S10 is dephosphorylated and subsequently phosphorylated de novo at late S phase of the first and second cell cycle. These results show that the H3S10 phosphorylation/dephosphorylation cycle in embryonic cells is different than in somatic cells. The behaviour of thymocyte G0 nuclei introduced into ovulated oocytes and early 1-cell parthenogenotes confirms that kinases responsible for de novo H3S10 phosphorylation, most probably Aurora B, are active until G1 of the first cell cycle of mouse embryo. The inhibition of Aurora kinases by ZM447439 caused abnormalities both in the first and second mitoses. However, the disturbances in each division differed, suggesting important differences in the control of these mitoses. In ZM447439-treated mitotic zygotes Mad2 protein remained continuously present on kinetochores, what confirmed that spindle checkpoint remained active.