Computational and experimental analysis reveals a requirement for eosinophil-derived IL-13 for the development of allergic airway responses in C57BL/6 mice

Eosinophils are found in the lungs of humans with allergic asthma, as well as in the lungs of animals in models of this disease. Increasing evidence suggests that these cells are integral to the development of allergic asthma in C57BL/6 mice. However, the specific function of eosinophils that is required for this event is not known. In this study, we experimentally validate a dynamic computational model and perform follow-up experimental observations to determine the mechanism of eosinophil modulation of T cell recruitment to the lung during development of allergic asthma. We find that eosinophils deficient in IL-13 were unable to rescue airway hyperresponsiveness, T cell recruitment to the lungs, and Th2 cytokine/chemokine production in ΔdblGATA eosinophil-deficient mice, even if Th2 cells were present. However, eosinophil-derived IL-13 alone was unable to rescue allergic asthma responses in the absence of competence of other IL-13-producing cells. We further computationally investigate the role of other cell types in the production of IL-13, which led to the various predictions including early and late pulses of IL-13 during airway hyperresponsiveness. These experiments suggest that eosinophils and T cells have an interdependent relationship, centered on IL-13, which regulates T cell recruitment to the lung and development of allergic asthma.     

Cutting edge: IL-5 primes Th2 cytokine-producing capacity in eosinophils through a STAT5-dependent mechanism

Both type-2 CD4(+) Th cells (CD4(+)Th2) and type-2 innate effector cells play critical roles in generating type-2 immunity that can either be protective against parasitic infection or cause tissue damage in allergy and asthma. How innate effector cells acquire the capacity to produce Th2 cytokines is not entirely known. We previously showed that IL-4 induced differentiation of Th2 cytokine-producing eosinophils. To determine whether other Th2 cytokines can also induce Th2 cytokine-producing capacity in innate effector cells, we cultured bone marrow progenitor cells in the presence of various Th2 cytokines. IL-5, but not IL-13 or IL-25, primed bone marrow progenitor cells to differentiate into robust IL-4-producing cells. The majority of IL-4-producing cells induced by IL-5 were eosinophils. Importantly, IL-5 completely depended on STAT5 to promote IL-4-producing capacity in eosinophils. Thus, our study demonstrates that IL-5 functions as a potent factor that drives bone marrow progenitor cells into IL-4-producing eosinophils.     

Absence of the complement anaphylatoxin C3a receptor suppresses Th2 effector functions in a murine model of pulmonary allergy

Asthma is a chronic inflammatory disease of the lung resulting in airway obstruction. The airway inflammation of asthma is strongly linked to Th2 lymphocytes and their cytokines, particularly IL-4, IL-5, and IL-13, which regulate airway hyperresponsiveness, eosinophil activation, mucus production, and IgE secretion. Historically, complement was not thought to contribute to the pathogenesis of asthma. However, our previous reports have demonstrated that complement contributes to bronchial hyperreactivity, recruitment of airway eosinophils, IL-4 production, and IgE responses in a mouse model of pulmonary allergy. To define the complement activation fragments that mediate these effects, we assessed the role of the complement anaphylatoxin C3a in a mouse model of pulmonary allergy by challenging C3aR-deficient mice intranasally with a mixed Ag preparation of Aspergillus fumigatus cell culture filtrate and OVA. Analysis by plethysmography after challenge revealed an attenuation in airway hyperresponsiveness in C3aR-deficient mice relative to wild-type mice. C3aR-deficient mice also had an 88% decrease in airway eosinophils and a 59% reduction in lung IL-4-producing cells. Consistent with the reduced numbers of IL-4-producing cells, C3aR-deficient mice had diminished bronchoalveolar lavage levels of the Th2 cytokines, IL-5 and IL-13. C3aR knockout mice also exhibited decreases in IgE titers as well as reduced mucus production. Collectively, these data highlight the importance of complement activation, the C3a anaphylatoxin, and its receptor during Th2 development in this experimental model and implicate these molecules as possible therapeutic targets in diseases such as asthma.     

Blockade of JAK2 by tyrphostin AG-490 inhibits antigen-induced eosinophil recruitment into the mouse airways

We studied the effect of tyrphostin AG-490, a specific Janus kinase 2 (JAK2) inhibitor, on antigen-induced eosinophil recruitment into the airways of sensitized mice and on IL-5-induced chemokinesis and adhesiveness of eosinophils. The in vivo administration of AG-490 prevented antigen-induced eosinophil infiltration in the airways of sensitized mice in a dose-dependent manner. However, the administration of AG-490 did not affect antigen-induced IL-5 production in the airways nor in vitro antigen-induced IL-5 production and T cell proliferation of spleen cells. Furthermore, AG-490 inhibited IL-5-induced chemokinesis and beta1-integrin adhesiveness of eosinophils in vitro. Because antigen-induced eosinophil recruitment into the airways is mediated by IL-5, these results indicate that JAK2 activation is critical for antigen-induced, IL-5-dependent mobilization of eosinophils into the tissue.     

IL-4 induces differentiation and expansion of Th2 cytokine-producing eosinophils

Innate effector cells that produce Th2-type cytokines are critical in Th2 cell-mediated immune responses. However, it is not known how these cells acquire the ability to produce Th2 cytokines. IL-4 is a potent inducer that directs differentiation of naive CD4(+) T cells into CD4(+) Th2 effector cells. To determine whether IL-4 can induce differentiation and expansion of Th2 cytokine-producing innate cells, we used mice whose il-4 gene was replaced by a knock-in green fluorescence protein (gfp) gene. We found that, directly ex vivo, IL-4 increased the number of GFP(+) cells in the airway and the lung tissue in an Ag-specific manner. The majority of GFP(+) cells were eosinophils, suggesting that IL-4 plays a pivotal role in expanding IL-4-producing eosinophils in vivo. IL-4-producing eosinophils showed some unique features compared with IL-4-producing CD4(+) T cells. They exhibited biallelic expression of the il-4 gene when stimulated and were more dominant IL-4- and IL-5-producing cells. Furthermore, we show that IL-4 drove bone marrow progenitor cells to differentiate into Th2 cytokine-producing eosinophils in vitro. These results strongly suggest IL-4 is a potent factor in directing bone marrow progenitor cells to differentiate into Th2 cytokine-producing eosinophils.     

Eosinophils in a tri-cell multicellular tumor spheroid (MTS)/endothelium complex.

Eosinophils have been found in infiltrates of many different cancers. It is still unclear as to whether they are passive bystanders in the cellular milieu or active cellular agents in host responses. Thus their harmful or helpful nature remains equivocal. We have developed an in vitro tri-cell model of eosinophils, MCF-7 breast tumor cell spheroids and HUVEC endothelial cells to examine the binding and association of eosinophils with both the tumor and the endothelia and the ensuing action of the tumor. Eosinophils bound very rapidly to the tumor spheroid and remained tightly bound throughout the 24 hr culture period. Histological staining of the tri-cell complex revealed highly granulated eosinophils as well as large amounts of degranulated protein diffused throughout the spheroid. IL-5 treatment of eosinophil: MTS complexes resulted in destruction of the tumor cells, particularly those which had grown out from the spheroid onto the endothelial cells. Eosinophils, pretreated with IL-5 before interaction with the tumor or endothelial cells, bound aggressively to the endothelial cells, thereby preventing tumor attachment. This eosinophil tri-cell tumor model system mimics clinical observations with regards to binding to epithelial and endothelial cells, dispersal of granular proteins throughout the tumor and also tumor destruction. Because it closely mirrors in vivo cellular interactions, it allows one to study more closely the mechanism(s) of eosinophil killing, the modulation of eosinophil activity and the testing of therapeutic interventions. The accommodation of the model to tumor invasion, using metastatic tumor cells and extracellular matrices such as matrigel, will help to elucidate a role for eosinophils (and their mediators) in cancer invasion and metastasis.     

Poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase-1 inhibition prevents eosinophil recruitment by modulating Th2 cytokines in a murine model of allergic airway inflammation: a potential specific effect on IL-5

We recently used a murine model of allergic airway inflammation to show that poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase-1 (PARP-1) plays an important role in the pathogenesis of asthma-related lung inflammation. In this study, we show that PARP-1 inhibition, by a novel inhibitor (TIQ-A) or by gene deletion, prevented eosinophilic infiltration into the airways of OVA-challenged mice. Such impairment of eosinophil recruitment appeared to take place after IgE production. OVA challenge of wild-type mice resulted in a significant increase in IL-4, IL-5, IL-10, IL-13, and GM-CSF secretions. Although IL-4 production was moderately affected in OVA-challenged PARP-1(-/-) mice, the production of IL-5, IL-10, IL-13, and GM-CSF was completely inhibited in ex vivo OVA-challenged lung cells derived from these animals. A single TIQ-A injection before OVA challenge in wild-type mice mimicked the latter effects. The marked effect PARP-1 inhibition exerted on mucus production corroborated the effects observed on the Th2 response. Although PARP-1 inhibition by gene knockout increased the production of the Th1 cytokines IL-2 and IL-12, the inhibition by TIQ-A exerted no effect on these two cytokines. The failure of lung cells derived from OVA-challenged PARP-1(-/-) mice to synthesize GM-CSF, a key cytokine in eosinophil recruitment, was reestablished by replenishment of IL-5. Furthermore, intranasal administration of IL-5 restored the impairment of eosinophil recruitment and mucus production in OVA-challenged PARP-1(-/-) mice. The replenishment of either IL-4 or IgE, however, did not result in such phenotype reversals. Altogether, these results suggest that PARP-1 plays a critical role in eosinophil recruitment by specifically regulating the cascade leading to IL-5 production.     

IL-4 differentially regulates eotaxin and MCP-4 in lung epithelium and circulating mononuclear cells

To investigate the mechanisms of eosinophil recruitment in allergic airway inflammation, we examined the effects of interleukin (IL)-4, a Th2-type cytokine, on eotaxin and monocyte chemoattractant protein-4 (MCP-4) expression in human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs; n = 10), in human lower airway mononuclear cells (n = 5), in the human lung epithelial cell lines A549 and BEAS-2B, and in human cultured airway epithelial cells. IL-4 inhibited eotaxin and MCP-4 mRNA expression induced by IL-1 beta and tumor necrosis factor-alpha in PBMCs but did not significantly inhibit expression in epithelial cells. Eotaxin and MCP-4 mRNA expression was not significantly induced by proinflammatory cytokines in lower airway mononuclear cells. IL-1 beta-induced eotaxin and MCP-4 protein production was also inhibited by IL-4 in PBMCs, whereas IL-4 enhanced eotaxin protein production in A549 cells. In contrast, dexamethasone inhibited eotaxin and MCP-4 expression in both PBMCs and epithelial cells. The divergent effects of IL-4 on eotaxin and MCP-4 expression between PBMCs and epithelial cells may create chemokine concentration gradients between the subepithelial layer and the capillary spaces that may promote the recruitment of eosinophils to the airway in Th2-type responses.     

Synergism among interleukin 1, interleukin 3, and interleukin 5 in the production of eosinophils from primitive hemopoietic stem cells

The in vitro production of eosinophils from committed progenitor cells is influenced by interleukin (IL)-5 (eosinophil differentiation factor) and to a lesser extent by IL-3 and granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF). In primary suspension cultures of marrow cells taken from eosinophilic mice, IL-3 induced a modest stimulation of eosinophil production compared to IL-5. In contrast, IL-3 was sevenfold more effective than IL-5 in generating eosinophil progenitors (eosinophil colony-forming units (CFU-eo] from more primitive precursors present in the marrow of normal mice. Pre-incubation of marrow cells in suspension culture with IL-3, but not IL-5, increased the recovery of myeloid precursors responsive to G-CSF, GM-CSF, CSF-1, or IL-3 two- to fourfold while eosinophil progenitor cells responsive to IL-5 were increased by more than 70-fold. Similarly, pre-incubation of bone marrow cells under clonal conditions with IL-3, but not IL-5, resulted in a more than 50 fold increase in CFU-eo responsive to IL-5 over input values. Bone marrow from mice pre-treated with 5-fluorouracil is greatly depleted of progenitor cells directly responsive to IL-3 or IL-5. IL-1 which synergistically interacts with various CSF species to confer a clonogenic response by primitive stem cells present in 5-fluorouracil-treated marrow also failed to stimulate eosinophil production. A marked synergism was observed when IL-1 and IL-3 were combined in the suspension pre-culture phase with a more than sixfold recovery of CFU-eo than induced by either factor alone. Furthermore, pre-culture of 5-fluorouracil-treated marrow cells with a combination of IL-1 and IL-3 resulted in a more than 260-fold increase of CFU-eo over input numbers. These data suggest that the concatenate action of IL-1, IL-3, and IL-5 is an absolute requirement for the in vitro generation of eosinophils from primitive hemopoietic stem cells.     

Virulizin® induces production of IL-17E to enhance antitumor activity by recruitment of eosinophils into tumors

Virulizin has demonstrated strong antitumor efficacy in a variety of human tumor xenograft models including melanoma, pancreatic cancer, breast cancer, ovarian cancer and prostate cancer. Our previous studies have demonstrated that macrophages, NK cells, and cytokines are important in the antitumor mechanism of Virulizin. Virulizin treatment of tumor bearing mice results in the expansion as well as increased activity of monocytes/macrophages and production of cytokines IL-12 and TNFalpha and activation of NK cells. In this study we show that the inflammatory cytokine IL-17E (IL-25) is induced by Virulizin treatment and is part of its antitumor mechanism. IL-17E is a proinflammatory cytokine, which induces a T(H)2 type immune response, associated with eosinophil expansion and infiltration into mucosal tissues. IL-17E was increased in sera of Virulizin-treated mice bearing human melanoma xenografts, compared to saline-treated controls, as shown by 2D gel electrophoresis and ELISA. Treatment of splenocytes in vitro with Virulizin resulted in increased IL-17E mRNA expression, which peaked between 24 and 32 h post-stimulation. Both in vitro and in vivo experiments demonstrated that B cells produced IL-17E in response to Virulizin treatment. Furthermore, Virulizin treatment in vivo resulted in increased blood eosinophilia and eosinophil infiltration into tumors. Finally, injection of recombinant IL-17E showed antitumor activity towards xenografted tumors, which correlated with increased eosinophilia in blood and tumors. Taken together, these results support another antitumor mechanism mediated by Virulizin, through induction of IL-17E by B cells, leading to recruitment of eosinophils into tumors, which may function in parallel with macrophages and NK cells in mediating tumor destruction.     

Decreased expression of membrane IL-5 receptor alpha on human eosinophils: I. Loss of membrane IL-5 receptor alpha on airway eosinophils and increased soluble IL-5 receptor alpha in the airway after allergen challenge

IL-5 is a key cytokine for eosinophil maturation, recruitment, activation, and possibly the development of inflammation in asthma. High concentrations of IL-5 are present in the airway after Ag challenge, but the responsiveness of airway eosinophils to IL-5 is not well characterized. The objectives of this study were to establish, following airway Ag challenge: 1) the expression of membrane (m)IL-5Ralpha on bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) eosinophils; 2) the responsiveness of these cells to exogenous IL-5; and 3) the presence of soluble (s)IL-5Ralpha in BAL fluid. To accomplish these goals, blood and BAL eosinophils were obtained from atopic subjects 48 h after segmental bronchoprovocation with Ag. There was a striking reduction in mIL-5Ralpha on airway eosinophils compared with circulating cells. Furthermore, sIL-5Ralpha concentrations were elevated in BAL fluid, but steady state levels of sIL-5Ralpha mRNA were not increased in BAL compared with blood eosinophils. Finally, BAL eosinophils were refractory to IL-5 for ex vivo degranulation, suggesting that the reduction in mIL-5Ralpha on BAL eosinophils may regulate IL-5-mediated eosinophil functions. Together, the loss of mIL-5Ralpha, the presence of sIL-5Ralpha, and the blunted functional response (degranulation) of eosinophils to IL-5 suggest that when eosinophils are recruited to the airway, regulation of their functions becomes IL-5 independent. These observations provide a potential explanation for the inability of anti-IL-5 therapy to suppress airway hyperresponsiveness to inhaled Ag, despite a reduction in eosinophil recruitment.     

Effects of Th2 cytokines on chemokine expression in the lung: IL-13 potently induces eotaxin expression by airway epithelial cells

Airway inflammation associated with asthma is characterized by massive infiltration of eosinophils, mediated in part by specific chemoattractant factors produced in the lung. Allergen-specific Th2 cells appear to play a central role in asthma; for example, adoptively transferred Th2 cells induced lung eosinophilia associated with induction of specific chemokines. Interestingly, Th2 supernatant alone administered intranasally to naive mice induced eotaxin, RANTES, monocyte-chemotactic protein-1, and KC expression along with lung eosinophilia. We tested the major cytokines individually and found that IL-4 and IL-5 induced higher levels of macrophage-inflammatory protein-1alpha and KC; IL-4 also increased the production of monocyte-chemotactic protein-1; IL-13 and IL-4 induced eotaxin. IL-13 was by far the most potent inducer of eotaxin; indeed, a neutralizing anti-IL-13 Ab removed most of the eotaxin-inducing activity from Th2 supernatants, although it did not entirely block the recruitment of eosinophils. While TNF-alpha did not stimulate eotaxin production by itself, it markedly augmented eotaxin induction by IL-13. IL-13 was able to induce eotaxin in the lung of JAK3-deficient mice, suggesting that JAK3 is not required for IL-13 signaling in airway epithelial cells; however, eosinophilia was not induced in this situation, suggesting that JAK3 transduces other IL-13-mediated mechanisms critical for eosinophil recruitment. Our study suggests that IL-13 is an important mediator in the pathogenesis of asthma and therefore a potential target for asthma therapy.     

The IL-3/IL-5/GM-CSF common receptor plays a pivotal role in the regulation of Th2 immunity and allergic airway inflammation

The eosinophil is a central effector cell in allergic asthma. Differentiation and function of eosinophils are regulated by the CD4 Th2 cytokines IL-3, IL-5, and GM-CSF, which all signal through a common beta receptor subunit (betac). Recent therapeutic approaches targeting IL-5 alone have not ablated tissue accumulation of eosinophils and have had limited effects on disease progression, suggesting important roles for IL-3 and GM-CSF. By using a mouse model of allergic airways inflammation, we show that allergen-induced expansion and accumulation of eosinophils in the lung are abolished in betac-deficient (betac-/-) mice. Moreover, betac deficiency resulted in inhibition of hallmark features of asthma, including airways hypersensitivity, mucus hypersecretion, and production of Ag-specific IgE. Surprisingly, we also identified a critical role for this receptor in regulating type 2 immunity. Th2 cells in the lung of allergen-challenged betac-/- mice were limited in their ability to proliferate, produce cytokines, and migrate to effector sites, which was attributed to reduced numbers of myeloid dendritic cells in the lung compartment. Thus, the betac plays a critical role in allergen-induced eosinophil expansion and infiltration and is pivotal in regulating molecules that promote both early and late phases of allergic inflammation, representing a novel target for therapy.     

Nonhematopoietic NADPH oxidase regulation of lung eosinophilia and airway hyperresponsiveness in experimentally induced asthma

Pulmonary eosinophilia is one of the most consistent hallmarks of asthma. Infiltration of eosinophils into the lung in experimental asthma is dependent on the adhesion molecule vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 (VCAM-1) on endothelial cells. Ligation of VCAM-1 activates endothelial cell NADPH oxidase, which is required for VCAM-1-dependent leukocyte migration in vitro. To examine whether endothelial-derived NADPH oxidase modulates eosinophil recruitment in vivo, mice deficient in NADPH oxidase (CYBB mice) were irradiated and received wild-type hematopoietic cells to generate chimeric CYBB mice. In response to ovalbumin (OVA) challenge, the chimeric CYBB mice had increased numbers of eosinophils bound to the endothelium as well as reduced eosinophilia in the lung tissue and bronchoalveolar lavage. This occurred independent of changes in VCAM-1 expression, cytokine/chemokine levels (IL-5, IL-10, IL-13, IFNgamma, or eotaxin), or numbers of T cells, neutrophils, or mononuclear cells in the lavage fluids or lung tissue of OVA-challenged mice. Importantly, the OVA-challenged chimeric CYBB mice had reduced airway hyperresponsiveness (AHR). The AHR in OVA-challenged chimeric CYBB mice was restored by bypassing the endothelium with intratracheal administration of eosinophils. These data suggest that VCAM-1 induction of NADPH oxidase in the endothelium is necessary for the eosinophil recruitment during allergic inflammation. Moreover, these studies provide a basis for targeting VCAM-1-dependent signaling pathways in asthma therapies.     

Group 2 Innate Lymphoid Cell Production of IL-5 Is Regulated by NKT Cells during Influenza Virus Infection

Respiratory virus infections, such as influenza, typically induce a robust type I (pro-inflammatory cytokine) immune response, however, the production of type 2 cytokines has been observed. Type 2 cytokine production during respiratory virus infection is linked to asthma exacerbation; however, type 2 cytokines may also be tissue protective. Interleukin (IL)-5 is a prototypical type 2 cytokine that is essential for eosinophil maturation and egress out of the bone marrow. However, little is known about the cellular source and underlying cellular and molecular basis for the regulation of IL-5 production during respiratory virus infection. Using a mouse model of influenza virus infection, we found a robust transient release of IL-5 into infected airways along with a significant and progressive accumulation of eosinophils into the lungs, particularly during the recovery phase of infection, i.e. following virus clearance. The cellular source of the IL-5 was group 2 innate lymphoid cells (ILC2) infiltrating the infected lungs. Interestingly, the progressive accumulation of eosinophils following virus clearance is reflected in the rapid expansion of c-kit⁺ IL-5 producing ILC2. We further demonstrate that the enhanced capacity for IL-5 production by ILC2 during recovery is concomitant with the enhanced expression of the IL-33 receptor subunit, ST2, by ILC2. Lastly, we show that NKT cells, as well as alveolar macrophages (AM), are endogenous sources of IL-33 that enhance IL-5 production from ILC2. Collectively, these results reveal that c-kit⁺ ILC2 interaction with IL-33 producing NKT and AM leads to abundant production of IL-5 by ILC2 and accounts for the accumulation of eosinophils observed during the recovery phase of influenza infection.     

Regulation of human eosinophil NADPH oxidase activity: a central role for PKCdelta.

Eosinophils play a primary role in the pathophysiology of asthma. In the lung, the activation state of the infiltrating eosinophils determines the extent of tissue damage. Interleukin-5 (IL-5) and leukotriene B4 (LTB4) are important signaling molecules involved in eosinophil recruitment and activation. However, the physiological processes that regulate these activation events are largely unknown. In this study we have examined the mechanisms of human eosinophil NADPH oxidase regulation by IL-5, LTB4, and phorbol ester (PMA). These stimuli activate a Zn2+-sensitive plasma membrane proton channel, and treatment of eosinophils with Zn2+ blocks superoxide production. We have demonstrated that eosinophil intracellular pH is not altered by IL-5 activation of NADPH oxidase. Additionally, PKCdelta inhibitors block PMA, IL-5 and LTB4 mediated superoxide formation. Interestingly, the PKCdelta-selective inhibitor, rottlerin, does not block proton channel activation by PMA indicating that the oxidase and the proton conductance are regulated at distinct phosphorylation sites. IL-5 and LTB4, but not PMA, stimulated superoxide production is also blocked by inhibitors of PI 3-kinase indicating that activation of this enzyme is an upstream event common to both receptor signaling pathways. Our results indicate that the G-protein-coupled LTB4 receptor and the IL-5 cytokine receptor converge on a common signaling pathway involving PI 3-kinase and PKCdelta to regulate NADPH oxidase activity in human eosinophils.     

IFN-gamma-inducing factor (IL-18) increases allergic sensitization, serum IgE, Th2 cytokines, and airway eosinophilia in a mouse model of allergic asthma

We investigated the effects of IFN-gamma-inducing factor (IL-18) in a ragweed (RW) mouse model of allergic asthma. Administration of IL-18 in conjunction with allergic sensitization and challenge in wild-type, but not IFN-gamma -/- mice, inhibited the bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) eosinophilia induced by RW challenge, and increased serum levels of RW-specific IgG2a and production of IFN-gamma from splenocytes cultured with RW, indicating a critical role for IFN-gamma in mediating these effects. Paradoxically, the same treatment schedule in WT mice increased serum levels of RW-specific IgE and IgG1, and production of IL-4 and IL-5 from splenocytes cultured with RW. When the effects of the same IL-18 treatment schedule were allowed to mature for 3 wk, the inhibition of lung eosinophil recruitment was replaced by augmentation of lung eosinophil recruitment. In another experiment, IL-18 administered only with allergic sensitization increased BAL eosinophilia and lung expression of IL-5 and IFN-gamma, while IL-18 administered only with RW challenge decreased BAL eosinophilia and increased lung IFN-gamma expression, while lung expression of IL-5 remained unchanged. IL-18 administered without RW or adjuvant to naive mice increased total serum IgE levels. Finally, intrapulmonary administrations of IL-18 plus RW in naive mice dramatically increased Th2 cytokine production, IgE levels, eosinophil recruitment, and airway mucus, demonstrating induction of allergic sensitization. This is the first report demonstrating that IL-18 promotes a Th2 phenotype in vivo, and potently induces allergic sensitization. These results suggest that IL-18 may contribute to the pathogenesis of allergic asthma.     

CCR8 is expressed by antigen-elicited, IL-10-producing CD4+CD25+ T cells, which regulate Th2-mediated granuloma formation in mice

CCR8 was initially described as a Th2 cell-restricted receptor, but this has not been fully tested in vivo. The present study used ex vivo and in vivo approaches to examine the distribution and functional significance of CCR8 among CD4+ T cells. Populations of cytokine-secreting CD4+ T cells were generated in primed mice with Th1 or Th2 cell-mediated pulmonary granulomas, respectively elicited by i.v. challenge with either Mycobacteria bovis purified protein derivative- or Schistosoma mansoni egg Ag (SEA)-coated beads. Cytokine-producing CD4+ T cells were isolated from Ag-stimulated draining lymph node cultures by positive selection. Quantitative analysis of cytokine mRNA indicated enriched populations of IFN-gamma-, IL-4-, and IL-10-producing cells. Analysis of chemokine receptor mRNA indicated that IL-10+ cells selectively expressed CCR8 in the SEA bead-elicited type 2 response. The IL-10+CCR8+ populations were CD25+ and CD44+ but lacked enhanced Foxp3 expression. Adoptive transfer to naive recipients indicated that IL-10+ T cells alone could not transfer type 2 inflammation. Analysis of SEA bead-challenged CCR8-/- mice indicated significantly impaired IL-10 production as well as reductions in granuloma eosinophils. Adoptive transfer of CD4+CCR8+/+ T cells corrected cytokine and inflammation defects, but the granuloma eosinophil recruitment defect persisted when donor cells were depleted of IL-10+ cells. Accordingly, local IL-10 production correlated with CCR8 ligand (CCL1) expression and the appearance of CCR8+ cells in granulomatous lungs. Thus, IL-10-producing, CCR8+CD4+CD25+CD44+ T cells are generated during SEA challenge, which augment the Th2-mediated eosinophil-rich response to the parasite Ags.     

TNF-induced IL-8 and MCP-1 production in the eosinophilic cell line, EOL-1

The role of eosinophils in inflammation and their mode of activation is not well understood. Eosinophil accumulation and subsequent expression of cytokines at the site of inflammation may play a role in exacerbation of inflammatory responses. In the present study, we have examined the role of TNF-alpha in eosinophil activation and chemokine production using a human leukaemic eosinophil cell line, EOL-1. Initial studies demonstrated that TNF-alpha induced the upregulation of IL-8 and MCP-1 mRNA and protein. Kinetic studies indicated production of chemokines, IL-8 and MCP-1, as early as 4 h post-activation, with peak levels of chemokine produced at 8 h, and decreasing by 24 h post-TNF-alpha activation. When IL-10, a suppressive cytokine, was incubated with TNF-alpha and EOL-1 cells, no effect was observed on IL-8 and MCP-1 production. However, dexamethasone, a glucocorticoid, demonstrated potent inhibitory effects on the EOL-1-derived chemokines. These studies indicate that eosinophils may be a significant source of chemokines capable of participating in, and maintaining, leukocyte recruitment during inflammatory responses, such as asthma.     

α-Galactosylceramide-induced airway eosinophilia is mediated through the activation of NKT cells

Invariant NKT (iNKT) cells bridge innate and adaptive immune responses, resulting in the expansion of Ag-specific B and T cell responses. α-Galactosylceramide (α-GalCer), the most studied glycolipid that activates iNKT cells, has been proposed to be an effective adjuvant against infections and tumors. We found that the activation of iNKT cells by intranasal injection of α-GalCer induced airway eosinophilia in naive mice. Eosinophils, which mediate tissue damage and dysfunction by secreting mediators, play important roles in the pathogenesis of allergic diseases. In this study, we investigated the mechanism of how eosinophils are recruited to the lung by α-GalCer. Our results demonstrated that α-GalCer-induced eosinophil inflammation was mediated through iNKT cells. These cells secreted IL-5 to recruit eosinophils directly to the lung and/or secreted IL-4 and IL-13 to recruit eosinophils indirectly by inducing lung epithelial cells, endothelial cells, and fibroblast to secrete the eosinophil chemoattractant eotaxin. In addition, in the OVA-alum murine model of allergic asthma, α-GalCer administration in OVA-immunized mice also increased airway eosinophilia after challenge. Given our findings, intranasal administration of α-GalCer induced airway eosinophilic inflammation in both naive and allergic mice. Hence, it remains to be determined whether the activation of iNKT cells would be applicable in therapeutics for human diseases.