Biochemical detection of monovalent metal ion binding sites within RNA

Many RNAs, including the ribosome, RNase P, and the group II intron, explicitly require monovalent cations for activity in vitro. Although the necessity of monovalent cations for RNA function has been known for more than a quarter of a century, the characterization of specific monovalent metal sites within large RNAs has been elusive. Here we describe a biochemical approach to identify functionally important monovalent cations in nucleic acids. This method uses thallium (Tl+), a soft Lewis acid heavy metal cation with chemical properties similar to those of the physiological alkaline earth metal potassium (K+). Nucleotide analog interference mapping (NAIM) with the sulfur-substituted nucleotide 6-thioguanosine in combination with selective metal rescue of the interference with Tl+ provides a distinct biochemical signature for monovalent metal ion binding. This approach has identified a K+ binding site within the P4-P6 domain of the Tetrahymena group I intron that is also present within the X-ray crystal structure. The technique also predicted a similar binding site within the Azoarcus group I intron where the structure is not known. The approach is applicable to any RNA molecule that can be transcribed in vitro and whose function can be assayed.     

Functional identification of ligands for a catalytic metal ion in group I introns

Many enzymes use metal ions within their active sites to achieve enormous rate acceleration. Understanding how metal ions mediate catalysis requires elucidation of metal ion interactions with both the enzyme and the substrate(s). The three-dimensional arrangement determined by X-ray crystallography provides a powerful starting point for identifying ground state interactions, but only functional studies can establish and interrogate transition state interactions. The Tetrahymena group I ribozyme is a paradigm for the study of RNA catalysis, and previous work using atomic mutagenesis and quantitative analysis of metal ion rescue behavior identified catalytic metal ions making five contacts with the substrate atoms. Here, we have combined atomic mutagenesis with site-specific phosphorothioate substitutions in the ribozyme backbone to establish transition state ligands on the ribozyme for one of the catalytic metal ions, referred to as M A. We identified the pro-S P oxygen atoms at nucleotides C208, A304, and A306 as ground state ligands for M A, verifying interactions suggested by the Azoarcus crystal structures. We further established that these interactions are present in the chemical transition state, a conclusion that requires functional studies, such as those carried out herein. Elucidating these active site connections is a crucial step toward an in-depth understanding of how specific structural features of the group I intron lead to catalysis.     

Determination of metal ion binding sites within the hairpin ribozyme domains by NMR

Cations play an important role in RNA folding and stabilization. The hairpin ribozyme is a small catalytic RNA consisting of two domains, A and B, which interact in the transition state in an ion-dependent fashion. Here we describe the interaction of mono-, di-, and trivalent cations with the domains of the ribozyme, as studied by homo- and heteronuclear NMR spectroscopy. Paramagnetic line broadening, chemical shift mapping, and intermolecular NOEs indicate that the B domain contains four to five metal binding sites, which bind Mn(2+), Mg(2+), and Co(NH(3))(6)(3+). There is no significant structural change in the B domain upon the addition of Co(NH(3))(6)(3+) or Mg(2+). No specific monovalent ion binding sites exist on the B domain, as determined by (15)NH(4)(+) binding studies. In contrast to the B domain, there are no observable metal ion interactions within the internal loop of the A domain. Model structure calculations of Mn(2+) interactions at two sites within the B domain indicate that the binding sites comprise major groove pockets lined with functional groups oriented so that multiple hydrogen bonds can be formed between the RNA and Mn(H(2)O)(6)(2+) or Co(NH(3))(6)(3+). Site 1 is very similar in geometry to a site within the P4-P6 domain of the Tetrahymena group I intron, while site 2 is unique among known ion binding sites. The site 2 ion interacts with a catalytically essential nucleotide and bridges two phosphates. Due to its location and geometry, this ion may play an important role in the docking of the A and B domains.     

Metal ion binding to catalytic RNA molecules

Cations play critical roles in ribozyme structure and catalysis. Unraveling the contributions of cations as catalytic cofactors is a complex process, due to their role in inducing RNA folding and their potential ability to influence chemical reactions. Recent studies have made progress in separating these roles by directly comparing ion-induced folding with ribozyme activity. In addition, spectroscopic studies have allowed some ribozyme metal sites to be directly observed in solution, providing binding affinities and ligand information. The emerging picture suggests that important cation sites can be classified according to their affinities and properties, and can be located within the ribozyme structure. At moderate ionic strengths, a common theme is emerging for some ribozymes of structural sites that have relatively high metal ion affinities and a second type of metal site with weaker affinity that is responsible for catalysis or structural fine-tuning. In the larger ribozymes, apparent clusters of metal-sensitive positions are observed.     

Evidence for a polynuclear metal ion binding site in the catalytic domain of ribonuclease P RNA

Interactions with divalent metal ions are essential for the folding and function of the catalytic RNA component of the tRNA processing enzyme ribonuclease P (RNase P RNA). However, the number and location of specific metal ion interactions in this large, highly structured RNA are poorly understood. Using atomic mutagenesis and quantitative analysis of thiophilic metal ion rescue we provide evidence for metal ion interactions at the pro-R(P) and pro-S(P) non-bridging phosphate oxygens at nucleotide A67 in the universally conserved helix P4. Moreover, second-site modifications within helix P4 and the adjacent single stranded region (J3/4) provide the first evidence for metal ion interactions with nucleotide base functional groups in RNase P RNA and reveal the presence of an additional metal ion important for catalytic function. Together, these data are consistent with a cluster of metal ion interactions in the P1-P4 multi-helix junction that defines the catalytic core of the RNase P ribozyme.     

Uncoupling metallonuclease metal ion binding sites via nudge mutagenesis

The hydrolysis of phosphodiester bonds by nucleases is critical to nucleic acid processing. Many nucleases utilize metal ion cofactors, and for a number of these enzymes two active-site metal ions have been detected. Testing proposed mechanistic roles for individual bound metal ions has been hampered by the similarity between the sites and cooperative behavior. In the homodimeric PvuII restriction endonuclease, the metal ion dependence of DNA binding is sigmoidal and consistent with two classes of coupled metal ion binding sites. We reasoned that a conservative active-site mutation would perturb the ligand field sufficiently to observe the titration of individual metal ion binding sites without significantly disturbing enzyme function. Indeed, mutation of a Tyr residue 5.5 A from both metal ions in the enzyme-substrate crystal structure (Y94F) renders the metal ion dependence of DNA binding biphasic: two classes of metal ion binding sites become distinct in the presence of DNA. The perturbation in metal ion coordination is supported by 1H-15N heteronuclear single quantum coherence spectra of enzyme-Ca(II) and enzyme-Ca(II)-DNA complexes. Metal ion binding by free Y94F is basically unperturbed: through multiple experiments with different metal ions, the data are consistent with two alkaline earth metal ion binding sites per subunit of low millimolar affinity, behavior which is very similar to that of the wild type. The results presented here indicate a role for the hydroxyl group of Tyr94 in the coupling of metal ion binding sites in the presence of DNA. Its removal causes the affinities for the two metal ion binding sites to be resolved in the presence of substrate. Such tuning of metal ion affinities will be invaluable to efforts to ascertain the contributions of individual bound metal ions to metallonuclease function.     

Multinuclear magnetic resonance studies of metal ion binding sites of phosphoglucomutase

Metal binding at the activating site of rabbit muscle phosphoglucomutase has been studied by 31P, 7Li, and 113Cd NMR spectroscopy. A 7Li NMR signal of the binary Li+ complex of the phosphoenzyme was not observed probably because of rapid transverse relaxation of the bound ion due to chemical exchange with free Li+. The phosphoenzyme-Li+-glucose 6-phosphate ternary complex is more stable, kinetically, and yields a well-resolved peak from bound Li+ at -0.24 ppm from LiCl with a line width of 5 Hz and a T1 relaxation time of 0.51 +/- 0.07 s at 78 MHz. When glucose 1-phosphate was bound, instead, the chemical shift of bound 7Li+ was -0.13 ppm; and in the Li+ complex of the dephosphoenzyme and glucose bisphosphate a partially broadened 7Li+ peak appeared at -0.08 ppm. Thus, the bound metal ion has a somewhat different environment in each of these three ternary complexes. The 113Cd NMR signal of the binary Cd2+ complex of the phosphoenzyme appears at 22 ppm relative to Cd(ClO4)2 with a line width of 20 Hz at 44.4 MHz. Binding of substrate and formation of the Cd2+ complex of the dephosphoenzyme and glucose bisphosphate broaden the 113Cd NMR signal to 70 Hz and shift it to 75 ppm. The 53 ppm downfield shift upon the addition of substrate along with 1H NMR data suggests that one oxygen ligand to Cd2+ in the binary complex is replaced by a nitrogen ligand at some intermediate point in the enzymic reaction.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

High affinity agonistic metal ion binding sites within the melanocortin 4 receptor illustrate conformational change of transmembrane region 3

We created a molecular model of the human melanocortin 4 receptor (MC4R) and introduced a series of His residues into the receptor protein to form metal ion binding sites. We were able to insert micromolar affinity binding sites for zinc between transmembrane region (TM) 2 and TM3 where the metal ion alone was able to activate this peptide binding G-protein-coupled receptor. The exact conformation of the metal ion interactions allowed us to predict the orientation of the helices, and remodeling of the receptor protein indicated that Glu100 and Ile104 in TM2 and Asp122 and Ile125 in TM3 are directed toward a putative area of activation of the receptor. The molecular model suggests that a rotation of TM3 may be important for activation of the MC4R. Previous models of G-protein-coupled receptors have suggested that unlocking of a stabilizing interaction between the DRY motif, in the cytosolic part of TM3, and TM6 is important for the activation process. We suggest that this unlocking process may be facilitated through creation of a new interaction between TM3 and TM2 in the MC4R.     

Mechanistic characterization of the HDV genomic ribozyme: classifying the catalytic and structural metal ion sites within a multichannel reaction mechanism

Prior studies of the metal ion dependence of the self-cleavage reaction of the HDV genomic ribozyme led to a mechanistic framework in which the ribozyme can self-cleave by multiple Mg2+ ion-independent and -dependent channels [Nakano et al. (2001) Biochemistry 40, 12022]. In particular, channel 2 involves cleavage in the presence of a structural Mg2+ ion without participation of a catalytic divalent metal ion, while channel 3 involves both structural and catalytic Mg2+ ions. In the present study, experiments were performed to probe the nature of the various divalent ion sites and any specificity for Mg2+. A series of alkaline earth metal ions was tested for the ability to catalyze self-cleavage of the ribozyme under conditions that favor either channel 2 or channel 3. Under conditions that populate primarily channel 3, nearly identical K(d)s were obtained for Mg2+, Ca2+, Ba2+, and Sr2+, with a slight discrimination against Ca2+. In contrast, under conditions that populate primarily channel 2, tighter binding was observed as ion size decreases. Moreover, [Co(NH3)6]3+ was found to be a strong competitive inhibitor of Mg2+ for channel 3 but not for channel 2. The thermal unfolding of the cleaved ribozyme was also examined, and two transitions were found. Urea-dependent studies gave m-values that allowed the lower temperature transition to be assigned to tertiary structure unfolding. The effects of high concentrations of Na+ on the melting temperature for RNA unfolding and the reaction rate revealed ion binding to the folded RNA, with significant competition of Na+ (Hill coefficient of 1.5-1.7) for a structural Mg2+ ion and an unusually high intrinsic affinity of the structural ion for the RNA. Taken together, these data support the existence of two different classes of metal ion sites on the ribozyme: a structural site that is inner sphere with a major electrostatic component and a preference for Mg2+, and a weak catalytic site that is outer sphere with little preference for a particular divalent ion.     

DNA cleavage by EcoRV endonuclease: two metal ions in three metal ion binding sites

Four crystal structures of EcoRV endonuclease mutants K92A and K38A provide new insight into the mechanism of DNA bending and the structural basis for metal-dependent phosphodiester bond cleavage. The removal of a key active site positive charge in the uncleaved K92A-DNA-M(2+) substrate complex results in binding of a sodium ion in the position of the amine nitrogen, suggesting a key role for a positive charge at this position in stabilizing the sharp DNA bend prior to cleavage. By contrast, two structures of K38A cocrystallized with DNA and Mn(2+) ions in different lattice environments reveal cleaved product complexes featuring a common, novel conformation of the scissile phosphate group as compared to all previous EcoRV structures. In these structures, the released 5'-phosphate and 3'-OH groups remain in close juxtaposition with each other and with two Mn(2+) ions that bridge the conserved active site carboxylates. The scissile phosphates are found midway between their positions in the prereactive substrate and postreactive product complexes of the wild-type enzyme. Mn(2+) ions occupy two of the three sites previously described in the prereactive complexes and are plausibly positioned to generate the nucleophilic hydroxide ion, to compensate for the incipient additional negative charge in the transition state, and to ionize a second water for protonation of the 3'-oxyanion. Reconciliation of these findings with earlier X-ray and fluorescence studies suggests a novel mechanism in which a single initially bound metal ion in a third distinct site undergoes a shift in position together with movement of the scissile phosphate deeper into the active site cleft. This reconfigures the local environment to permit binding of the second metal ion followed by movement toward the pentacovalent transition state. The new mechanism suggested here embodies key features of previously proposed two- and three-metal catalytic models, and offers a view of the stereochemical pathway that integrates much of the copious structural and functional data that are available from exhaustive studies in many laboratories.     

The binding of terbium ions to gelsolin reveals two classes of metal ion binding sites.

Spectroscopically active terbium ions have been used to probe the Ca2+ ion-binding sites on human plasma gelsolin. The luminescence of Tb3+ ions bound to gelsolin is markedly enhanced when excited indirectly at 295 nm due to F?rster type dipole-dipole energy transfer from neighboring tryptophan residues. Titration of this luminescence with increasing concentrations of Tb3+ ions was saturable although the shape of this titration curve was complex indicating the involvement of multiple classes of sites. Luminescence lifetime measurements (obtained by indirect excitation at 295 nm) demonstrate the presence of two classes of sites characterized by a major lifetime of 1.0-1.1 ms and a minor lifetime of 0.7-0.8 ms. However, while the amplitude of the minor lifetime showed a hyperbolic dependence on the Tb3+ ion concentration, the amplitude of the major lifetime showed a strongly sigmoidal dependence. Different classes of Tb3+ ion binding sites can also be distinguished by the different Ca2+ ion concentrations needed to displace Tb3+ ions from these sites on gelsolin. It is proposed that the occupancy of one class of Tb3+ ion binding sites on gelsolin causes a conformational change in gelsolin which then allows a second class of cryptic Tb3+ ion binding sites to be expressed. The implications of these results in terms of the binding of Ca2+ ions to gelsolin and the regulation of the activities of gelsolin by calcium are discussed.     

Studies on the metal binding sites in the catalytic domain of beta1,4-galactosyltransferase

The catalytic domain of bovine beta1,4-galactosyltransferase (beta4Gal-T1) has been shown to have two metal binding sites, each with a distinct binding affinity. Site I binds Mn(2+) with high affinity and does not bind Ca(2+), whereas site II binds a variety of metal ions, including Ca(2+). The catalytic region of beta4Gal-T1 has DXD motifs, associated with metal binding in glycosyltransferases, in two separate sequences: D(242)YDYNCFVFSDVD(254) (region I) and W(312)GWGGEDDD(320) (region II). Recently, the crystal structure of beta4Gal-T1 bound with UDP, Mn(2+), and alpha-lactalbumin was determined in our laboratory. It shows that in the primary metal binding site of beta4Gal-T1, the Mn(2+) ion, is coordinated to five ligands, two supplied by the phosphates of the sugar nucleotide and the other three by Asp254, His347, and Met344. The residue Asp254 in the D(252)VD(254) sequence in region I is the only residue that is coordinated to the Mn(2+) ion. Region II forms a loop structure and contains the E(317)DDD(320) sequence in which residues Asp318 and Asp319 are directly involved in GlcNAc binding. This study, using site-directed mutagenesis, kinetic, and binding affinity analysis, shows that Asp254 and His347 are strong metal ligands, whereas Met344, which coordinates less strongly, can be substituted by alanine or glutamine. Specifically, substitution of Met344 to Gln has a less severe effect on the catalysis driven by Co(2+). Glu317 and Asp320 mutants, when partially activated by Mn(2+) binding to the primary site, can be further activated by Co(2+) or inhibited by Ca(2+), an effect that is the opposite of what is observed with the wild-type enzyme.     

Studying metal ion binding properties of a three-way junction RNA by heteronuclear NMR

Self-splicing group II introns are highly structured RNA molecules, containing a characteristic secondary and catalytically active tertiary structure, which is formed only in the presence of Mg(II). Mg(II) initiates the first folding step governed by the κζ element within domain 1 (D1κζ). We recently solved the NMR structure of D1κζ derived from the mitochondrial group II intron ribozyme Sc.ai5γ and demonstrated that Mg(II) is essential for its stabilization. Here, we performed a detailed multinuclear NMR study of metal ion interactions with D1κζ, using Cd(II) and cobalt(III)hexammine to probe inner- and outer-sphere coordination of Mg(II) and thus to better characterize its binding sites. Accordingly, we mapped ¹H, ¹⁵N, ¹³C, and ³¹P spectral changes upon addition of different amounts of the metal ions. Our NMR data reveal a Cd(II)-assisted macrochelate formation at the 5′-end triphosphate, a preferential Cd(II) binding to guanines in a helical context, an electrostatic interaction in the ζ tetraloop receptor and various metal ion interactions in the GAAA tetraloop and κ element. These results together with our recently published data on Mg(II) interaction provide a much better understanding of Mg(II) binding to D1κζ, and reveal how intricate and complex metal ion interactions can be.     

Pb EXAFS studies on DNA quadruplexes: identification of metal ion binding site

Nucleic acid quadruplexes are composed of guanine quartets stabilized by specific metal ions. X-ray diffraction can provide high-resolution information on the structure and metal binding properties of quadruplexes, but only if they can be crystallized. NMR can provide detailed information on the solution structure of such quadruplexes but little quantitative data concerning the metal binding site. Here we apply extended X-ray absorption fine structure (EXAFS) measurements to characterize the metal ion binding site, in frozen solution, of the unimolecular quadruplex formed by the thrombin binding aptamer, d(G(2)T(2)G(2)TGTG(2)T(2)G(2)) (TBA), in the presence of Pb(2+) ions. The Pb L(III) -edge X-ray absorption spectrum of this metal-DNA complex is very similar to that we obtain for a Pb(2+)-stabilized quartet system of known structure constructed from a modified guanine nucleoside (G1). The Fourier transforms of the Pb(2+) complexes with both TBA and G1 show a first-shell interaction at about 2.6 A, and a weaker, broader shell at 3.5-4.0 A. Quantitative analysis of the EXAFS data reveals the following: (i) very close agreement between interatomic distances at the metal coordination site for the Pb(2+)-G1 complex determined by EXAFS and by X-ray crystallography; (ii) similarly close agreement between interatomic distances measured by EXAFS for the Pb(2+)-G1 and Pb(2+)-TBA complexes. These results provide strong evidence for binding of the Pb(2+) ion in the region between the two quartets in the Pb(2+)-TBA complex, coordinated to the eight surrounding guanine O6 atoms. The specific binding of Pb(2+) to DNA examined here may be relevant to the genotoxic effects of this environmentally important heavy metal. Furthermore, these results demonstrate the utility of EXAFS as a method for quantitative characterization of specific metal binding sites in nucleic acids in solution.     

Design of metal ion binding peptides

Two cyclic and branched peptides (PLA and AZU) were synthesized with the aim of reproducing the active site of the blue copper proteins plastocyanin and azurin. Both peptides, designed on the basis of the x-ray structures of Poplar plastocyanin and Alcaligenes denitrificans azurin. contain the same coordinating residues of the parent native proteins. The visible spectra of PLA in the presence of equimolar amount of Cu(II) strongly support the interaction between the peptide and copper(II) ion. The CD titration of AZU with the Hg(II) ion indicates for the formation of two species. [A ZUHg]⁺ and [A ZUHg₂]³⁺ having binding constants (K_eq) of 3.10⁶ and 2–10⁴M^?1, respectively. © 1994 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.