Novel neuroprotective action of prothymosin alpha‐derived peptide against retinal and brain ischemic damages

Prothymosin alpha (ProTα), a nuclear protein, is implicated in the inhibition of ischemia‐induced necrosis as well as apoptosis in the brain and retina. Although ProTα has multiple biological functions through distinct regions in its sequence, it has remained which region is involved in this neuroprotection. This study reported that the active core peptide sequence P₃₀ (amino acids 49–78) of ProTα exerts its full survival effect in cultured cortical neurons against ischemic stress. Our in vivo study revealed that intravitreous administration of P₃₀ at 24 h after retinal ischemia significantly blocks the ischemia‐induced functional damages of retina at day 7. In addition, P₃₀ completely rescued the retinal ischemia‐induced ganglion cell damages at day 7 after the ischemic stress, along with partial blockade of the loss of bipolar, amacrine, and photoreceptor cells. On the other hand, intracerebroventricular (3 nmol) or systemic (1 mg/kg; i.v.) injection of P₃₀ at 1 h after cerebral ischemia (1 h tMCAO) significantly blocked the ischemia‐induced brain damages and disruption of blood vessels. Systemic P₃₀ delivery (1 mg/kg; i.v.) also significantly ameliorated the ischemic brain caused by photochemically induced thrombosis. Taken together, this study confers a precise demonstration about the novel protective activity of ProTα‐derived small peptide P₃₀ against the ischemic damages in vitro and in vivo.     

Dopamine metabolism and free-radical related mitochondrial injury during transient brain ischemia in gerbils

Regional extracellular release of dopamine (DA) and its metabolites, 3,4-dihydroxy-phenylacetic acid (DOPAC), homovanillic acid (HVA) and 3-methoxytyramine (3-MT) was measured in gerbils (with or without pargyline pretreatment) subjected to bilateral carotid artery occlusion (15 min) and various periods of recirculation (up to 6 hr), utilizing intracerebral microdialysis and high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with electrochemical detection. Mitochondrial monoamine oxidase (MAO) and superoxide dismutase (SOD) activities andin vitro stimulated lipid peroxidation (TBARM) were determined in separate experimental groups of animals. The ischemically induced DA release, decrease of MAO-derived DA metabolites DOPAC and HVA, and accumulation of 3-MT were potentiated and prolonged by pargyline pretreatment. Mitochondrial MAO and SOD activities were significantly reduced during ischemia alone and up to 1 hr of reperfusion, whereas TBARM was enhanced during reflow only. The data suggest that reduced activity of mitochondrial antioxidative enzyme(s) but not DA metabolism by MAO may contribute to free radical-mediated injury of (mitochondrial) membranes.     

Effects of warm and cold ischemia on mitochondrial functions in brain,liver and kidney

The purpose of this work was to study the effects of warm (37°C) and cold (4°C) ischemia on different mitochondrial functions in rat brain, liver and kidney.After l0 to 60 minutes of ischemia at 37°C the energy coupled respiration as well as the ADP-induced malate-aspartate shuttle activity in brain and liver mitochondria or the rate of mitochondrial ATP synthesis in kidney were significantly decreased. However, the respiratory rates and the shuttle activity in the absence of ADP remained unchanged. These data suggest that ischemia primarily affects electron transport in the respiratory chain rather than the hydrogen shuttle and the energy coupling system. When the temperature during the indicated ischemic periods was decreased to 4°C, in brain and liver no significant alterations of these mitochondrial functions were found in comparison with the non-ischemic controls. When rat kidneys were stored for 36 hours at 4°C according to Collins mimicing transplantation conditions, the mitochondrial respiration and ATP synthesis were only slightly decreased. It therefore appears that hypothermia can prevent effectively mitochondrial dysfunction due to ischemia.     

Progesterone and vitamin D: Improvement after traumatic brain injury in middle-aged rats

Progesterone (PROG) and vitamin D hormone (VDH) have both shown promise in treating traumatic brain injury (TBI). Both modulate apoptosis, inflammation, oxidative stress, and excitotoxicity. We investigated whether 21 days of VDH deficiency would alter cognitive behavior after TBI and whether combined PROG and VDH would improve behavioral and morphological outcomes more than either hormone alone in VDH-deficient middle-aged rats given bilateral contusions of the medial frontal cortex. PROG (16 mg/kg) and VDH (5 μg/kg) were injected intraperitoneally 1 h post-injury. Eight additional doses of PROG were injected subcutaneously over 7 days post-injury. VDH deficiency itself did not significantly reduce baseline behavioral functions or aggravate impaired cognitive outcomes. Combination therapy showed moderate improvement in preserving spatial and reference memory but was not significantly better than PROG monotherapy. However, combination therapy significantly reduced neuronal loss and the proliferation of reactive astrocytes, and showed better efficacy compared to VDH or PROG alone in preventing MAP-2 degradation. VDH + PROG combination therapy may attenuate some of the potential long-term, subtle, pathophysiological consequences of brain injury in older subjects.     

Isolated spinal cord contusion in rats induces chronic brain neuroinflammation,neurodegeneration, and cognitive impairment

Cognitive dysfunction has been reported in patients with spinal cord injury (SCI), but it has been questioned whether such changes may reflect concurrent head injury, and the issue has not been addressed mechanistically or in a well-controlled experimental model. Our recent rodent studies examining SCI-induced hyperesthesia revealed neuroinflammatory changes not only in supratentorial pain-regulatory sites, but also in other brain regions, suggesting that additional brain functions may be impacted following SCI. Here we examined effects of isolated thoracic SCI in rats on cognition, brain inflammation, and neurodegeneration. We show for the first time that SCI causes widespread microglial activation in the brain, with increased expression of markers for activated microglia/macrophages, including translocator protein and chemokine ligand 21 (C–C motif). Stereological analysis demonstrated significant neuronal loss in the cortex, thalamus, and hippocampus. SCI caused chronic impairment in spatial, retention, contextual, and fear-related emotional memory—evidenced by poor performance in the Morris water maze, novel objective recognition, and passive avoidance tests. Based on our prior work implicating cell cycle activation (CCA) in chronic neuroinflammation after SCI or traumatic brain injury, we evaluated whether CCA contributed to the observed changes. Increased expression of cell cycle-related genes and proteins was found in hippocampus and cortex after SCI. Posttraumatic brain inflammation, neuronal loss, and cognitive changes were attenuated by systemic post-injury administration of a selective cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor. These studies demonstrate that chronic brain neurodegeneration occurs after isolated SCI, likely related to sustained microglial activation mediated by cell cycle activation.     

Determination of hydrophobicity of myelinic,synaptosomal, and mitochondrial surfaces in the rat brain

The hydrophobicity of myelinic, synaptosomal and mitochondrial surfaces in the rat brain was measured using the nonionic surfactant, C₁₈H₃₇O(CH₂CH₂O)₁₃H. This method is based on the adsorption of the hydrophobic alkyl group of the surfactant by the hydrophobic sites on the surfaces. Each preparations was mixed with an excess of the surfactant and the surfactant remaining in the supernatants was determined spectrophotometrically by measuring the absorbance of tetrabromophenolphthalein ethylester at 690 nm. The greatest amount was adsorbed by myelin, followed by synaptosomes and mitochondria. The hydrophobicity is shown to be a reflection of the surface lipids. This method showed good reproducibility and was useful for the quantitative determination of hydrophobicity.     

Regional and cellular expression of CYP2D6 in human brain: higher levels in alcoholics

Cytochrome P450 (CYP) 2D6 is expressed in liver, brain and other extrahepatic tissues where it metabolizes a range of centrally acting drugs and toxins. As ethanol can induce CYP2D in rat brain, we hypothesized that CYP2D6 expression is higher in brains of human alcoholics. We examined regional and cellular expression of CYP2D6 mRNA and protein by RT-PCR, Southern blotting, slot blotting, immunoblotting and immunocytochemistry. A significant correlation was found between mean mRNA and CYP2D6 protein levels across 13 brain regions. Higher expression was detected in 13 brain regions of alcoholics (n = 8) compared to nonalcoholics (n = 5) (anovap < 0.0001). In hippocampus this was localized in CA1-3 pyramidal cells and dentate gyrus granular neurons. In cerebellum this was localized in Purkinje cells and their dendrites. Both of these brain regions, and these same cell-types, are known to be susceptible to alcohol damage. For one case, a poor metabolizer (CYP2D6*4/*4), there was no detectable CYP2D6 protein, confirming the specificity of the antibody used. These data suggest that in alcoholics elevated brain CYP2D6 expression may contribute to altered sensitivity to centrally acting drugs and to the mediation of neurotoxic and behavioral effects of alcohol.     

Developmental vitamin D deficiency alters the expression of genes encoding mitochondrial, cytoskeletal and synaptic proteins in the adult rat brain

Epidemiology has highlighted the links between season of birth, latitude and the prevalence of brain disorders such as multiple sclerosis and schizophrenia. In line with these data, we have hypothesized that ‘imprinting’ with low prenatal vitamin D could contribute to the risk of these two brain disorders. Previously, we have shown that transient developmental hypovitaminosis D induces permanent changes in adult nervous system. The aim of this study was to examine the impact of prenatal hypovitaminosis D on gene expression in the adult rat brain. Vitamin D deficient female rats were mated with undeprived males and the offspring were fed with a control diet after birth. At Week 10, gene expression in the progeny's brain was compared with control animals using Affymetrix gene microarrays. Prenatal hypovitaminosis D causes a dramatic dysregulation of several biological pathways including oxidative phosphorylation, redox balance, cytoskeleton maintenance, calcium homeostasis, chaperoning, post-translational modifications, synaptic plasticity and neurotransmission. A computational analysis of these data suggests that impaired synaptic network may be a consequence of mitochondrial dysfunction. Since disruptions of mitochondrial metabolism have been associated with both multiple sclerosis and schizophrenia, developmental vitamin D deficiency may be a heuristic animal model for the study of these two brain diseases.     

Nitroarginine,an inhibitor of nitric oxide synthetase,attenuates ammonia toxicity and ammonia-induced alterations in brain metabolism

We have proposed that acute ammonia toxicity is mediated by activation of the N-methyl-D-aspartate type of glutamate receptors. MK-801, a selective antagonist of these receptors, prevents death of animals induced by acute ammonia intoxication as well as ammonia-induced depletion of ATP. It seems therefore that, following activation of the N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors, the subsequent events in ammonia toxicity should be similar to those involved in glutamate neurotoxicity. As it has been shown that inhibitors of nitric oxide synthetase such as nitroargnine prevent glutamate toxicity, we have tested whether nitroarginine prevents ammonia toxicity and ammonia-induced alterations in brain energy and ammonia metabolites. It is shown that nitroarginine prevents partially (50%), but significantly death of mice induced by acute ammonia intoxication. Nitroarginine also prevents partially ammonia-induced depletion of brain ATP. It also prevents completely the rise in glucose and pyruvate and partially that in lactate. Injection of nitroarginine alone, in the absence of ammonia, induces a remarkable accumulation of glutamine and a decrease in glutamate. The results reported indicate that nitroarginine attenuates acute ammonia toxicity and ammonia-induced alterations in brain energy metabolites. The effects of MK-801 and of nitroarginine are different, suggesting that ammonia can induce nitric oxide synthetase by mechanisms other than activation of N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors.     

Shift in the localization of sites of hydrogen peroxide production in brain mitochondria by mitochondrial stress

We have determined the underlying sites of H(2)O(2) generation by isolated rat brain mitochondria and how these can shift depending on the presence of respiratory substrates, electron transport chain modulators and exposure to stressors. H(2)O(2) production was determined using the fluorogenic Amplex red and peroxidase system. H(2)O(2) production was higher when succinate was used as a respiratory substrate than with another FAD-dependent substrate, alpha-glycerophosphate, or with the NAD-dependent substrates, glutamate/malate. Depolarization by the uncoupler p-trifluoromethoxyphenylhydrazone decreased H(2)O(2) production stimulated by all respiratory substrates. H(2)O(2) production supported by succinate during reverse transfer of electrons was decreased by inhibitors of complex I (rotenone and diphenyleneiodonium) whereas in glutamate/malate-oxidizing mitochondria diphenyleneiodonium decreased while rotenone increased H(2)O(2) generation. The complex III inhibitors antimycin and myxothiazol decreased succinate-induced H(2)O(2) production but stimulated H(2)O(2) production in glutamate/malate-oxidizing mitochondria. Antimycin and myxothiazol also increased H(2)O(2) production in mitochondria using alpha-glycerophosphate as a respiratory substrate. In substrate/inhibitor experiments maximal stimulation of H(2)O(2) production by complex I was observed with the alpha-glycerophosphate/antimycin combination. In addition, three forms of in vitro mitochondrial stress were studied: Ca(2+) overload, cold storage for more than 24 h and cytochrome c depletion. In each case we observed (i) a decrease in succinate-supported H(2)O(2) production by complex I and an increase in succinate-supported H(2)O(2) production by complex III, (ii) increased glutamate/malate-induced H(2)O(2) generation by complex I and (iii) increased alpha-glycerophosphate-supported H(2)O(2) generation by complex III. Our results suggest that all three forms of mitochondrial stress resulted in similar shifts in the localization of sites of H(2)O(2) generation and that, in both normal and stressed states, the level and location of H(2)O(2) production depend on the predominant energetic substrate.     

Synergism between cytosolic and mitochondrial oxidation: its possible relevance to the metabolism of vitamin D3 in the kidney

Using frozen liver sections and quantitative cytochemistry it has been established that when cells are allowed to oxidize a cytoplasmic and a mitochondrial substrate simultaneously the resulting oxidative activity is markedly higher than the sum of the oxidation of each substrate measured separately. In the present study this type of synergistic interaction has been confirmed in the kidney, particularly in cells of the pars recta. Our results support the evidence of the influence of cytoplasmic NADPH on the intramitochondrial oxidative process and it is suggested that, in cells of the pars recta, cytosolic NADPH may be involved in intramitochondrial mixed function oxidases such as 1 alpha-hydroxylase: these results could further elucidate the mechanism responsible for the production of the hormonal form of vitamin D3.     

Role of mitochondrial calcium uniporter‐mediated Ca2+ and iron accumulation in traumatic brain injury

Previous studies have suggested that the cellular Ca²⁺ and iron homeostasis, which can be regulated by mitochondrial calcium uniporter (MCU), is associated with oxidative stress, apoptosis and many neurological diseases. However, little is known about the role of MCU‐mediated Ca²⁺ and iron accumulation in traumatic brain injury (TBI). Under physiological conditions, MCU can be inhibited by ruthenium red (RR) and activated by spermine (Sper). In the present study, we used RR and Sper to reveal the role of MCU in mouse and neuron TBI models. Our results suggested that the Ca²⁺ and iron concentrations were obviously increased after TBI. In addition, TBI models showed a significant generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), decrease in adenosine triphosphate (ATP), deformation of mitochondria, up‐regulation of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) damage and increase in apoptosis. Blockage of MCU by RR prevented Ca²⁺ and iron accumulation, abated the level of oxidative stress, improved the energy supply, stabilized mitochondria, reduced DNA damage and decreased apoptosis both in vivo and in vitro. Interestingly, Sper did not increase cellular Ca²⁺ and iron concentrations, but suppressed the Ca²⁺ and iron accumulation to benefit the mice in vivo. However, Sper had no significant impact on TBI in vitro. Taken together, our data demonstrated for the first time that blockage of MCU‐mediated Ca²⁺ and iron accumulation was essential for TBI. These findings indicated that MCU could be a novel therapeutic target for treating TBI.     

mito KATP和κ-阿片受体介导肢体缺血后处理对抗大鼠脑缺血／复灌损伤

目的：观察肢体缺血后处理（LIPC）在大鼠局灶性脑缺血／复灌损伤中的神经保护作用及其作用机制。方法：将大鼠随机分为6组：空白对照组,单侧LIPC组,双侧LIPC组（bLIPC）,bLIPC＋mito KATP阻断剂5-lydroxydecanoate（5-HD））预处理组,bLIPC＋κ-阿片受体拮抗剂nor-binaltorphimine（nor-BNI）预处理组,bLIPC＋双侧后肢体外循环组。采用线栓法建立大鼠大脑中动脉栓塞（MCAO）模型,术后进行神经系统症状评分,血浆强啡肽和脑啡肽水平测定,大脑梗死面积测定。结果：单侧L1PC能改善大鼠局灶性脑缺血／复灌损伤后的神经系统功能评分（P〈0．05）,并减少大脑梗死面积（P〈0．01）;而双侧12PC能显著提高大鼠局灶性脑缺血／复灌损伤后的神经系统功能评分,并显著减少大脑梗死面积（P〈0．01）,比单侧LIPC的作用更为明显（P〈0．05）。双侧L／PC后5、15、30min,1和2h这五个时间点,血浆强啡肽水平显著增高（P〈0．01）,12和24h这两个时间点恢复至正常水平;而血浆脑啡肽水平的改变与双侧LIPC前比较无显著差异（P〉0．05）。nor-BNI预处理（25nmol）和5-HD预处理（10mg／kg）均消除了双侧LIPC所致的神经系统功能评分增加和大脑梗死面积减少（P〈0．01）。结论：LIPC在大鼠局灶性脑缺血／复灌损伤中具有显著的神经保护作用,其作用可能与LIPC诱导内源性阿片激动剂释放和激活mito KATP有关。     

Thiamine preserves mitochondrial function in a rat model of traumatic brain injury,preventing inactivation of the 2-oxoglutarate dehydrogenase complex

Background and purpose

Based on the fact that traumatic brain injury is associated with mitochondrial dysfunction we aimed at localization of mitochondrial defect and attempted to correct it by thiamine.

Comparison of the performances of copeptin and multiple biomarkers in long-term prognosis of severe traumatic brain injury

Enhanced blood levels of copeptin correlate with poor clinical outcomes after acute critical illness. This study aimed to compare the prognostic performances of plasma concentrations of copeptin and other biomarkers like myelin basic protein, glial fibrillary astrocyte protein, S100B, neuron-specific enolase, phosphorylated axonal neurofilament subunit H, Tau and ubiquitin carboxyl-terminal hydrolase L1 in severe traumatic brain injury. We recruited 102 healthy controls and 102 acute patients with severe traumatic brain injury. Plasma concentrations of these biomarkers were determined using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Their prognostic predictive performances of 6-month mortality and unfavorable outcome (Glasgow Outcome Scale score of 1–3) were compared. Plasma concentrations of these biomarkers were statistically significantly higher in all patients than in healthy controls, in non-survivors than in survivors and in patients with unfavorable outcome than with favorable outcome. Areas under receiver operating characteristic curves of plasma concentrations of these biomarkers were similar to those of Glasgow Coma Scale score for prognostic prediction. Except plasma copeptin concentration, other biomarkers concentrations in plasma did not statistically significantly improve prognostic predictive value of Glasgow Coma Scale score. Copeptin levels may be a useful tool to predict long-term clinical outcomes after severe traumatic brain injury and have a potential to assist clinicians.     

Antibodies against pax6 immunostain amacrine and ganglion cells and neuronal progenitors,but not rod precursors,in the normal and regenerating retina of the goldfish

Pax6 is a developmental regulatory gene that plays a key role in the development of the embryonic brain, eye, and retina. This gene is also expressed in discrete groups of neurons within the adult brain. In this study, antibodies raised against a fusion protein from a zebra fish pax6 cDNA were used to investigate the expression of the pax6 gene in the mature, growing, and regenerating retina of the goldfish. On western blots of retinal proteins, the pax6 antibodies recognize a single band at the approximate size of the zebra fish pax6 protein. In retinal sections, the antibodies label the nuclei of mature amacrine and some ganglion cells. At the retinal margin, where neurogenesis and cellular differentiation continually occur in goldfish, the antibodies label neuronal progenitors and the newly postmitotic neurons. Following injury and during neuronal regeneration, the antibodies label mitotically active progenitors of regenerating neurons. Rod precursors, proliferating cells that normally give rise solely to rod photoreceptors and are the presumed antecedents of the injury-stimulated neuronal progenitors, are not immunostained by antibodies to the pax6 protein. The results of this study document the identity of pax6-expressing cells in the mature retina and demonstrate that in the goldfish pax6 is expressed in neuronal progenitors during both retinal growth and regeneration. © 1996 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

The role of temperature,stress, and other factors in the neurotoxicity of the substituted amphetamines 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine and fenfluramine

Amphetamines (AMPs) can cause long-term depletions in striatal dopamine (DA) and serotonin (5-HT), and these decrements are often accepted asprima facie evidence of AMP-induced damage to the dopaminergic and serotonergic projections to striatum. Rarely are indices linked to neural damage used to evaluate the neurotoxicity, of the AMPs. Here, were determined the potential neurotoxic effects of two substituted AMPs,d-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (d-MDMA), andd-fenfluramine (d-FEN) in group-housed female C57BL6/J mice. Astrogliosis, assessed by quantification of glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP), was the main indicator of d-MDMA-induced neural damage. Assays of tyrosine hydroxylase (TH), DA, and 5-HT were used to determine effects on DA and 5-HT systems. Since AMPs are noted for both their stimulatory and hyperthermia-inducing properties, activity, as well as core temperature, was monitored in several experiments. To extend the generality of our findings, these same end points were examined in singly housed female C57BL6/J mice in and group-housed male C57BL6/J or female B6C3F1 mice after treatment with d-MDMA. Mice, received either d-MDMA (20 mg/kg) singly housed mice received dosages of 20, 30, or 40 mg/kg) or d-FEN (25 mg/kg) every 2 h for a total of four sc injections. d-MDMA caused hyperthermia, whereas d-FEN induced hypothermia. d-MDMA cause a large (300%) increase in striatal GFAP that resolved by 3 wk and a 50–75% decrease in TH and DA that was still apparent at 3 wk, d-FEN did not affect any parameters in striatum. d-MDMA is a striatal dopaminergic neurotoxicant in both male and female C57BL6/mice, as evidence by astrogliosis and depletions of DA in this area in both sexes. The greater lethality to males suggests they may be more sensitive, at least to the general toxicity of d-MDMA, than females. d-MDMA (20 mg/kg) induced the same degree of damage whether mice were housed singly or in groups. Higher dosages in singly housed mice induced greater lethality, but not greater neurotoxicity. d-MDMA was also effective in inducing striatal damage in mice of the B6C3F1 strain. Significant increases in activity were induced by d-MDMA, and these increases were not blocked by pretreatment with MK-801, despite the profound lowering of body temperature induced by this combination. A lowering of body temperature, whether by a 15°C ambient temperature (approx 2°C drop), pretreatment with MK-801 (1.0 mg/kg prior to the first and third d-MDMA injections; approx 5–6°C drop) or restraint (approx 5–6°C drop), was effective in blocking the neurotoxicity of d-MDMA in both C57BL6/J and B6C3F1. The stimulatory effects of d-MDMA appeared to have little impact on the neurotoxicity induced by d-MDMA or the protection conferred by MK-801. These data suggest that in the mouse, the neurotoxic effects of d-MDMA, and most likely other AMPs, are linked to an effect on body temperature.     

Neuropathology in sensory,but not motor,brainstem nuclei of the rat whisker circuit after diffuse brain injury

Neurological dysfunction after traumatic brain injury (TBI) is associated with pathology in cortical, subcortical, and brainstem nuclei. Our laboratory has reported neuropathology and microglial activation in the somatosensory barrel cortex (S1BF) and ventral posterior medial thalamus (VPM) after diffuse TBI in the rat, which correlated with post-injury whisker sensory sensitivity. The present study extends our previous work by evaluating pathology in whisking-associated sensory and motor brainstem nuclei. Brains from adult, male rats were recovered over 1 month after midline fluid percussion or sham injury. The principal trigeminal nucleus (PrV, sensory nucleus) and facial nucleus (VIIN, motor nucleus) were examined for neuropathology (silver histochemistry) and microglial activation (Iba1). Significant neuropathology in PrV was evident at 2 and 7 days post-injury compared to sham. Iba1-labeled microglia showed swollen somata and thickened processes over 1 month post-injury. In contrast, the VIIN showed non-significant neuropathology and reduced labeling of activated Iba1 microglia over 1 month post-injury. Together with our previous data, neuropathology and neuroinflammation in the whisker somatosensory pathway may contribute to post-injury sensory sensitivity more than the motor pathway. Whether these findings are direct results of the mechanical injury or consequences of progressive degeneration remains to be determined.