Visually Mediated Odor Tracking During Flight in Drosophila

Flying insects use visual cues to stabilize their heading in a wind stream. Many animals additionally track odors carried in the wind. As such, visual stabilization of upwind tracking directly aids in odor tracking. But do olfactory signals directly influence visual tracking behavior independently from wind cues? Additionally, recent advances in olfactory molecular genetics and neurophysiology have motivated novel quantitative behavioral analyses to assess the behavioral influence of (e.g.) genetically inactivating specific olfactory activation circuits. We modified a magnetic tether system originally devised for vision experiments by equipping the arena with narrow laminar flow odor plumes. Here we focus on experiments that can be performed after a fly is tethered and is able to navigate in the magnetic arena. We show how to acquire video images optimized for measuring body angle, how to judge stable odor tracking, and we illustrate two experiments to examine the influence of visual cues on odor tracking.Download video file.^{(56M, flv)}     

Use of the Protease Fluorescent Detection Kit to Determine Protease Activity

The Protease Fluorescent Detection Kit provides ready-to-use reagents for detecting the presence of protease activity. This simple assay to detect protease activity uses casein labeled with fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC) as the substrate.Protease activity results in the cleavage of the FITC-labeled casein substrate into smaller fragments, which do not precipitate under acidic conditions. After incubation of the protease sample and substrate, the reaction is acidified with the addition of trichloroacetic acid (TCA). The mixture is then centrifuged with the undigested substrate forming a pellet and the smaller, acid soluble fragments remaining in solution. The supernatant is neutralized and the fluorescence of the FITC-labeled fragments is measured.The described kit procedure detects the trypsin protease control at a concentration of approximately 0.5 μg/ml (5 ng of trypsin added to the assay). This sensitivity can be increased with a longer incubation time, up to 24 hours. The assay is performed in microcentrifuge tubes and procedures are provided for fluorescence detection using either cuvettes or multiwell plates.Download video file.^{(52M, flv)}     

From MEFs to Matrigel 3: Passaging hESCs from Matrigel onto Matrigel

This video demonstrates how to maintain the growth of human embryonic stem cells (hESCs) in feeder cell-free conditions and how to continuously passage hESCs in feeder cell-free conditions. Confirmation of hESC pluripotency grown in feeder cell-free conditions by immunofluorescence microscopy is also demonstrated.Open in a separate windowClick here to view.^{(24M, flv)}     

Proper Care and Cleaning of the Microscope

Keeping the microscope optics clean is important for high-quality imaging. Dust, fingerprints, excess immersion oil, or mounting medium on or in a microscope causes reduction in contrast and resolution. DIC is especially sensitive to contamination and scratches on the lens surfaces. This protocol details the procedure for keeping the microscope clean.Download video file.^{(54M, mp4)}     

Olfactory Behavioral Testing in the Adult Mouse

The rodent olfactory system is of increasing interest to scientists, studied, in part, in systems biology because of its stereotyped, yet accessible circuitry. In addition, this area''s unique ability to generate new neurons throughout an organism''s lifetime makes it an attractive system for developmental and regenerative biologists alike. Such interest necessitates a means for a quick, yet reliable assessment of olfactory function. Many tests of olfactory ability are complex, variable or not specifically designed for mice. Also, some tests are sensitive to memory deficits as well as defects in olfactory abilities, confounding obtained results.Here, we describe a simple battery of tests designed to identify defects in olfactory sensitivity and preference. First, an initial general health assessment allows for the identification of animals suitable for further testing. Second, mice are exposed to various dilutions of scents to ascertain whether there is a threshold difference. Third, mice are presented with various scents, both attractive and aversive, that allow for the assessment of olfactory preference. These simple studies should make the initial characterization of olfactory behavior accessible for labs of varied resources and expertise.Download video file.^{(52M, flv)}     

Protocols for Microapplicator-assisted Infection of Lepidopteran Larvae with Baculovirus

Baculoviruses are widely used both as protein expression vectors and as insect pest control agents. . This video shows how lepidopteran larvae can be infected with microapplicator techniques in the gut with baculovirus polyhedra and in the hemolymph with budded virus. This accompanying Springer Protocols section provides an overview of the baculovirus lifecycle and use of baculoviruses as insecticidal agents. Formulation and application of baculoviruses for pest control purposes are described elsewhere.Download video file.^{(127M, mp4)}     

Culture and Maintenance of Human Embryonic Stem Cells

Human embryonic stem (hES) cells must be monitored and cared for in order to maintain healthy, undifferentiated cultures. At minimum, the cultures must be fed every day by performing a complete medium change to replenish lost nutrients and to keep the cultures free of unwanted differentiation factors. Although a small amount of differentiation is normal and expected in stem cell cultures, the culture should be routinely cleaned up by manually removing, or "picking" differentiated areas. Identifying and removing excess differentiation from hES cell cultures are essential techniques in the maintenance of a healthy population of cells.Download video file.^{(109M, mp4)}     

Staining Proteins in Gels

Following separation by electrophoretic methods, proteins in a gel can be detected by several staining methods. This unit describes protocols for detecting proteins by four popular methods. Coomassie blue staining is an easy and rapid method. Silver staining, while more time consuming, is considerably more sensitive and can thus be used to detect smaller amounts of protein. Fluorescent staining is a popular alternative to traditional staining procedures, mainly because it is more sensitive than Coomassie staining, and is often as sensitive as silver staining. Staining of proteins with SYPRO Orange and SYPRO Ruby are also demonstrated here.Download video file.^{(121M, mp4)}     

Electrophoretic Separation of Proteins

Electrophoresis is used to separate complex mixtures of proteins (e.g., from cells, subcellular fractions, column fractions, or immunoprecipitates), to investigate subunit compositions, and to verify homogeneity of protein samples. It can also serve to purify proteins for use in further applications. In polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis, proteins migrate in response to an electrical field through pores in a polyacrylamide gel matrix; pore size decreases with increasing acrylamide concentration. The combination of pore size and protein charge, size, and shape determines the migration rate of the protein. In this unit, the standard Laemmli method is described for discontinuous gel electrophoresis under denaturing conditions, i.e., in the presence of sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS). Download video file.^{(49M, mov)}     

Contrast Enhanced Vessel Imaging using MicroCT

Microscopic computed tomography (microCT) offers high-resolution volumetric imaging of the anatomy of living small animals. However, the contrast between different soft tissues and body fluids is inherently poor in micro-CT images ¹. Under these circumstances, visualization of blood vessels becomes a nearly impossible task. To overcome this and to improve the visualization of blood vessels exogenous contrast agents can be used. Herein, we present a methodology for visualizing the vascular network in a rodent model. By using a long-acting aqueous colloidal polydisperse iodinated blood-pool contrast agent, eXIA 160XL, we optimized image acquisition parameters and volume-rendering techniques for finding blood vessels in live animals. Our findings suggest that, to achieve a superior contrast between bone and soft tissue from vessel, multiple-frames (at least 5-8/ frames per view), and 360-720 views (for a full 360° rotation) acquisitions were mandatory. We have also demonstrated the use of a two-dimensional transfer function (where voxel color and opacity was assigned in proportion to CT value and gradient magnitude), in visualizing the anatomy and highlighting the structure of interest, the blood vessel network. This promising work lays a foundation for the qualitative and quantitative assessment of anti-angiogenesis preclinical studies using transgenic or xenograft tumor-bearing mice.Download video file.^{(37M, mov)}     

Preparation of Gene Gun Bullets and Biolistic Transfection of Neurons in Slice Culture

Biolistic transfection is a physical means of transfecting cells by bombarding tissue with high velocity DNA coated particles. We provide a detailed protocol for biolistic transfection of rat hippocampal slices, from the initial preparation of DNA coated bullets to the final shooting of the organotypic slice cultures using a gene gun. Gene gun transfection is an efficient and easy means of transfecting neurons and is especially useful for fluorescently labeling a small subset of cells in tissue slice. In this video, we first outline the steps required to coat gold particles with DNA. We next demonstrate how to line the inside of plastic tubing with the gold/DNA bullets, and how to cut this tubing to obtain the plastic cartridges for loading into the gene gun. Finally, we perform biolistic transfection of rat hippocampal slice cultures, demonstrating handling of the Bio-Rad Helios gene gun, and offering trouble shooting advice to obtain healthy and optimally transfected tissue slices. Download video file.^{(102M, mov)}     

Embryonic Stem Cell-Derived Endothelial Cells for Treatment of Hindlimb Ischemia

Peripheral arterial disease (PAD) results from narrowing of the peripheral arteries that supply oxygenated blood and nutrients to the legs and feet, This pathology causes symptoms such as intermittent claudication (pain with walking), painful ischemic ulcerations, or even limb-threatening gangrene. It is generally believed that the vascular endothelium, a monolayer of endothelial cells that invests the luminal surface of all blood and lymphatic vessels, plays a dominant role in vascular homeostasis and vascular regeneration. As a result, stem cell-based regeneration of the endothelium may be a promising approach for treating PAD.In this video, we demonstrate the transplantation of embryonic stem cell (ESC)-derived endothelial cells for treatment of unilateral hindimb ischemia as a model of PAD, followed by non-invasive tracking of cell homing and survival by bioluminescence imaging. The specific materials and procedures for cell delivery and imaging will be described. This protocol follows another publication in describing the induction of hindlimb ischemia by Niiyama et al.¹Download video file.^{(55M, flv)}     

Whole-cell Recordings of Light Evoked Excitatory Synaptic Currents in the Retinal Slice

We use the whole-cell patch clamp technique to study the synaptic circuitry that underlies visual information processing in the retina. In this video, we will guide you through the process of performing whole-cell recordings of light evoked currents of individual cells in the retinal slice preparation. We use the aquatic tiger salamander as an animal model. We begin by describing the dissection of the eye and show how slices are mounted for electrophysiological recordings. Once the slice is placed in the recording chamber, we demonstrate how to perform whole-cell voltage clamp recordings. We then project visual stimuli onto the photoreceptors in the slice to elicit light-evoked current responses. During the recording we perfuse the slice with pharmacological agents, whereby an 8-channel perfusion system allows us to quickly switch between different agents. The retinal slice preparation is widely used for patch clamp recordings in the retina, in particular to study amacrine or bipolar cells, which are not accessible in a whole-mount preparation.Download video file.^{(217M, mp4)}     

Use of Arabidopsis eceriferum Mutants to Explore Plant Cuticle Biosynthesis

The plant cuticle is a waxy outer covering on plants that has a primary role in water conservation, but is also an important barrier against the entry of pathogenic microorganisms. The cuticle is made up of a tough crosslinked polymer called "cutin" and a protective wax layer that seals the plant surface. The waxy layer of the cuticle is obvious on many plants, appearing as a shiny film on the ivy leaf or as a dusty outer covering on the surface of a grape or a cabbage leaf thanks to light scattering crystals present in the wax. Because the cuticle is an essential adaptation of plants to a terrestrial environment, understanding the genes involved in plant cuticle formation has applications in both agriculture and forestry. Today, we''ll show the analysis of plant cuticle mutants identified by forward and reverse genetics approaches. Download video file.^{(163M, mov)}     

Targeting of Deep Brain Structures with Microinjections for Delivery of Drugs,Viral Vectors,or Cell Transplants

Microinjections into the brain parenchyma are important procedures to deliver drugs, viral vectors or cell transplants. The brain lesion that an injecting needle produces during its trajectory is a major concern especially in the mouse brain for not only the brain is small but also sometimes multiple injections are needed. We show here a method to produce glass capillary needles with a 50-μm lumen which significantly reduces the brain damage and allows a precise targeting into the rodent brain. This method allows a delivery of small volumes (from 20 to 100 nl), reduces bleeding risks, and minimizes passive diffusion of drugs into the brain parenchyma. By using different size of capillary glass tubes, or changing the needle lumen, several types of substances and cells can be injected. Microinjections with a glass capillary tube represent a significant improvement in injection techniques and deep brain targeting with minimal collateral damage in small rodents.Download video file.^{(40M, mov)}     

Single-Molecule Imaging of Nuclear Transport

The utility of single molecule fluorescence microscopy approaches has been proven to be of a great avail in understanding biological reactions over the last decade. The investigation of molecular interactions with high temporal and spatial resolutions deep within cells has remained challenging due to the inherently weak signals arising from individual molecules. Recent works by Yang et al. demonstrated that narrow-field epifluorescence microscopy allows visualization of nucleocytoplasmic transport at the single molecule level. By the single molecule approach, important kinetics, such as nuclear transport time and efficiency, for signal-dependent and independent cargo molecules have been obtained. Here we described a protocol for the methodological approach with an improved spatiotemporal resolution of 0.4 ms and 12 nm. The improved resolution enabled us to capture transient active transport and passive diffusion events through the nuclear pore complexes (NPC) in semi-intact cells. We expect this method to be used in elucidating other binding and trafficking events within cells.Download video file.^{(133M, mp4)}     

In vitro Differentiation of Mouse Embryonic Stem (mES) Cells Using the Hanging Drop Method

Stem cells have the remarkable potential to develop into many different cell types. When a stem cell divides, each new cell has the potential to either remain a stem cell or become another type of cell with a more specialized function, This promising of science is leading scientists to investigate the possibility of cell-based therapies to treat disease. When culture in suspension without antidifferentiation factors, embryonic stem cells spontaneously differentiate and form three-dimensional multicellular aggregates. These cell aggregates are called embryoid bodies(EB). Hanging drop culture is a widely used EB formation induction method. The rounded bottom of hanging drop allows the aggregation of ES cells which can provide mES cells a good environment for forming EBs. The number of ES cells aggregatied in a hanging drop can be controlled by varying the number of cells in the initial cell suspension to be hung as a drop from the lid of Petri dish. Using this method we can reproducibly form homogeneous EBs from a predetermined number of ES cells. Download video file.^{(78M, mp4)}     

Micro-drive Array for Chronic in vivo Recording: Drive Fabrication

Chronic recording of large populations of neurons is a valuable technique for studying the function of neuronal circuits in awake behaving rats. Lightweight recording devices carrying a high density array of tetrodes allow for the simultaneous monitoring of the activity of tens to hundreds of individual neurons. Here we describe a protocol for the fabrication of a micro-drive array with twenty one independently movable micro-drives. This device has been used successfully to record from hippocampal and cortical neurons in our lab. We show how to prepare a custom designed, 3-D printed plastic base that will hold the micro-drives. We demonstrate how to construct the individual micro-drives and how to assemble the complete micro-drive array. Further preparation of the drive array for surgical implantation, such as the fabrication of tetrodes, loading of tetrodes into the drive array and gold-plating, is covered in a subsequent video article.Open in a separate windowClick here to view.^{(88M, flv)}