Cradle-to-gate life cycle inventory and assessment of pharmaceutical compounds

Background, Goal and Scope  The research presented here represents one part of GlaxoSmithKline’s (GSK) efforts to identify and improve the life cycle impact profile of pharmaceutical products. The main goal of this work was to identify and analyze the cradle-to-gate environmental impacts in the synthesis of a typical Active Pharmaceutical Ingredient (API). A cradle-to-gate life cycle assessment of a commercial pharmaceutical product is presented as a case study. Methods  Life cycle inventory data were obtained using a modular gate-to-gate methodology developed in partnership with North Carolina State University (NCSU) while the impact assessment was performed utilizing GSK’s sustainability metrics methodology. Results and Discussion  Major contributors to the environmental footprint of a typical pharmaceutical product were identified. The results of this study indicate that solvent use accounts for a majority of the potential cradle-to-gate impacts associated with the manufacture of the commercial pharmaceutical product under study. If spent solvent is incinerated instead of recovered the life-cycle profile and impacts are considerably increased. Conclusions  This case study provided GSK with key insights into the life-cycle impacts of pharmaceutical products. It also helped to establish a well-documented approach to using life cycle within GSK and fostered the development of a practical methodology that is applicable to strategic decision making, internal business processes and other processes and tools.     

Integrating life cycle costs and environmental impacts of composite rail car-bodies for a Korean train

Background, aim, and scope  A coupled Life Cycle Costing and life cycle assessment has been performed for car-bodies of the Korean Tilting Train eXpress (TTX) project using European and Korean databases, with the objective of assessing environmental and cost performance to aid materials and process selection. More specifically, the potential of polymer composite car-body structures for the Korean Tilting Train eXpress (TTX) has been investigated. Materials and methods  This assessment includes the cost of both carriage manufacturing and use phases, coupled with the life cycle environmental impacts of all stages from raw material production, through carriage manufacture and use, to end-of-life scenarios. Metallic carriages were compared with two composite options: hybrid steel-composite and full-composite carriages. The total planned production for this regional Korean train was 440 cars, with an annual production volume of 80 cars. Results and discussion  The coupled analyses were used to generate plots of cost versus energy consumption and environmental impacts. The results show that the raw material and manufacturing phase costs are approximately half of the total life cycle costs, whilst their environmental impact is relatively insignificant (3–8%). The use phase of the car-body has the largest environmental impact for all scenarios, with near negligible contributions from the other phases. Since steel rail carriages weigh more (27–51%), the use phase cost is correspondingly higher, resulting in both the greatest environmental impact and the highest life cycle cost. Compared to the steel scenario, the hybrid composite variant has a lower life cycle cost (16%) and a lower environmental impact (26%). Though the full composite rail carriage may have the highest manufacturing cost, it results in the lowest total life cycle costs and lowest environmental impacts. Conclusions and recommendations  This coupled cost and life cycle assessment showed that the full composite variant was the optimum solution. This case study showed that coupling of technical cost models with life cycle assessment offers an efficient route to accurately evaluate economic and environmental performance in a consistent way.     

Integrating life cycle cost analysis and LCA

The private sector decision making situations which LCA addresses mustalso eventually take theeconomic consequences of alternative products or product designs into account. However, neither the internal nor external economic aspects of the decisions are within the scope of developed LCA methodology, nor are they properly addressed by existing LCA tools. This traditional separation of life cycle environmental assessment from economic analysis has limited the influence and relevance of LCA for decision-making, and left uncharacterized the important relationships and trade-offs between the economic and life cycle environmental performance of alternative product design decision scenarios. Still standard methods of LCA can and have been tightly, logically, and practically integrated with standard methods for cost accounting, life cycle cost analysis, and scenario-based economic risk modeling. The result is an ability to take both economic and environmental performance — and their tradeoff relationships — into account in product/process design decision making.     

Life cycle assessment of natural gas power plants in Thailand

Background, aim, and scope  The main primary energy for electricity in Thailand is natural gas, accounting for 73% of the grid mix. Electricity generation from natural gas combustion is associated with substantial air emissions. The two technologies currently used in Thailand, thermal and combined cycle power plant, have been evaluated for the potential environmental impacts in a “cradle-to-grid” study according to the life cycle assessment (LCA) method. This study evaluates the environmental impacts of each process of the natural gas power production over the entire life cycle and compares two different power plant technologies currently used in Thailand, namely, combined cycle and thermal. Materials and methods  LCA is used as a tool for the assessment of resource consumption and associated impacts generated from utilization of natural gas in power production. The details follow the methodology outlined in ISO 14040. The scope of this research includes natural gas extraction, natural gas separation, natural gas transmission, and natural gas power production. Most of the inventory data have been collected from Thailand, except for the upstream of fuel oil and fuel transmission, which have been computed from Greenhouse gases, Regulated Emissions, and Energy use in Transportation version 1.7 and Global Emission Model for Integrated Systems version 4.3. The impact categories considered are global warming, acidification, photochemical ozone formation, and nutrient enrichment potential (NEP). Results  The comparison reveals that the combined cycle power plant, which has a higher efficiency, performs better than the thermal power plant for global warming potential (GWP), acidification potential (ACP), and photochemical ozone formation potential (POCP), but not for NEP where the thermal power plant is preferable. Discussion  For the thermal power plant, the most significant environmental impacts are from power production followed by upstream of fuel oil, natural gas extraction, separation, and transportation. For the combined cycle power plant, the most significant environmental impacts are from power production followed by natural gas extraction, separation, and transportation. The significant difference between the two types of power production is mainly from the combustion process and feedstock in power plant. Conclusions  The thermal power plant uses a mix of natural gas (56% by energy content) and fuel oil (44% by energy content); whereas, the combined cycle power plant operates primarily on natural gas. The largest contribution to GWP, ACP, and NEP is from power production for both thermal as well as combined cycle power plants. The POCP for the thermal power plant is also from power production; whereas, for combined cycle power plant, it is mainly from transmission of natural gas. Recommendations and perspectives  In this research, we have examined the environmental impact of electricity generation technology between thermal and combined cycle natural gas power plants. This is the overview of the whole life cycle of natural gas power plant, which will help in decision making. The results of this study will be useful for future power plants as natural gas is the major feedstock being promoted in Thailand for power production. Also, these results will be used in further research for comparison with other feedstocks and power production technologies.     

Usability of national reporting data as a reference for generic unit processes

Background, aim and scope  Renewable energy sources nowadays constitute an increasingly important issue in our society, basically because of the need for alternative sources of energy to fossil fuels that are free of CO₂ emissions and pollution and also because of other problems such as the diminution of the reserves of these fossil fuels, their increasing prices and the economic dependence of non-producers countries on those that produce fossil fuels. One of the renewable energy sources that has experienced a bigger growth over the last years is wind power, with the introduction of new wind farms all over the world and the new advances in wind power technology. Wind power produces electrical energy from the kinetic energy of the wind without producing any pollution or emissions during the conversion process. Although wind power does not produce pollution or emissions during operation, it should be considered that there is an environmental impact due to the manufacturing process of the wind turbine and the disposal process at the end of the wind turbine life cycle, and this environmental impact should be quantified in order to compare the effects of the production of energy and to analyse the possibilities of improvement of the process from that point of view. Thus, the aim of this study is to analyse the environmental impact of wind energy technology, considering the whole life cycle of the wind power system, by means of the application of the ISO 14040 standard [ISO (1998) ISO 14040. Environmental management—life cycle assessment—principles and framework. International Standard Organization, Geneva, Switzerland], which allows quantification of the overall impact of a wind turbine and each of its component parts using a Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) study. Materials and methods  The procedures, details, and results obtained are based on the application of the existing international standards of LCA. In addition, environmental details and indications of materials and energy consumption provided by the various companies related to the production of the component parts are certified by the application of the environmental management system ISO 14001 [ISO (2004) ISO 14001 Environmental management systems—requirements with guidance for use. International Standard Organization, Geneva, Switzerland]. A wind turbine is analysed during all the phases of its life cycle, from cradle to grave, by applying this methodology, taking into account all the processes related to the wind turbine: the production of its main components (through the incorporation of cut-off criteria), the transport to the wind farm, the subsequent installation, the start-up, the maintenance and the final dismantling and stripping down into waste materials and their treatment. The study has been developed in accordance with the ISO 14044 standard [ISO (2006) ISO 14044: Environmental management—life cycle assessment—requirements and guidelines. International Standard Organization, Geneva, Switzerland] currently in force. Results  The application of LCA, according to the corresponding international standards, has made it possible to determine and quantify the environmental impact associated with a wind turbine. On the basis of this data, the final environmental effect of the wind turbine after a lifespan of 20 years and its subsequent decommissioning have been studied. The environmental advantages of the generation of electricity using wind energy, that is, the reduction in emissions and contamination due to the use of a clean energy source, have also been evaluated. Discussion  This study concludes that the environmental pollution resulting from all the phases of the wind turbine (manufacture, start-up, use, and dismantling) during the whole of its lifetime is recovered in less than 1 year. Conclusions  From the developed LCA model, the important levels of contamination of certain materials can be obtained, for instance, the prepreg (a composite made by a mixture of epoxy resin and fibreglass). Furthermore, it has been concluded that it is possible to reduce the environmental effects of manufacturing and recycling processes of wind turbines and their components. Recommendations and perspectives  In order to achieve this goal in a fast and effective way, it is essential to enlist the cooperation of the different manufacturers.     

LCA of an Italian lager beer

Background, Aim and Scope  The increasing concern about environment protection and a broader awareness of the sustainable development issues cause more and more attention to be given to the environmental impacts of products through the different phases of their life cycle. Foods are definitely among the products whose overall environmental performance can be effectively investigated resorting to LCA. A LCA case study was performed in order to detect and quantify the environmental impacts deriving from the life cycle of a lager beer produced by an Italian small brewery, investigating and comparing two packaging options: beer in 20 L returnable stainless steel kegs and beer in 33 cL one way glass bottles. Materials and Methods  The investigated system included: production and acquisition of materials and energy, brewing process, packaging, transports, beer consumption and waste disposal. Data for the study were mostly collected from the Theresianer Brewery and completed on the basis of literature information. Data uncertainty was treated with a Monte Carlo analysis. Life Cycle Inventories were constructed for 1 L of beer in bottle and 1 L of beer in keg using the LCA software SimaPro and then assessed at the endpoint level according to the Eco-Indicator’99 method. Results  Inorganic emissions, land use and fossil fuel consumptions resulted to be the most critical environmental issues of both beer life cycles. Beer in keg turned out to cause a lower environmental load along its life cycle than bottled beer; this was mainly due to the higher emissions and the higher energy consumptions allocated to the glass bottles. Moreover, beer consumption phase, glass bottle production and barley cultivation were found to be the critical stages of the beer life cycle. Discussion  The brewing process did not result as a critical stage and therefore the company dimension may not be a crucial element for the overall impact quantification. On the contrary, beer consumption may have a significant impact mainly due to the consumer displacement. Conclusions  The analysis pointed out the relevance of the beer consumption phase and of the packaging choice within the beer life cycle and allowed to detect the other critical stages of the life cycle. It is worth to notice that producers and consumers can be active and responsible actors in pursuing the collective goal of the environmental sustainability. Recommendations and Perspectives  In order to improve the environmental performance of the beer life cycle, producers should set up marketing strategies in favour of reusable packaging and consumers should prefer draught beer and reduce car use. As beer consumption phase, bottle production and recycling and barley cultivation were found to be very significant stages of the life cycle of the beer, deepening the analysis of these aspects in similar studies is suggested. ESS-Submission Editor: Dr. Rolf Frischknecht (frischknecht@ecoinvent.org)     

Influence of functional unit on the life cycle assessment of traction batteries

Goal, Scope and Background This paper describes the influence of the choice of the functional unit on the results of an environmental assessment of different battery technologies for electric and hybrid vehicles. Battery, hybrid and fuel cell electric vehicles are considered as being environmentally friendly. However, the batteries they use are sometimes said to be environmentally unfriendly. At the current state of technology different battery types can be envisaged: lead-acid, nickel-cadmium, nickel-metal hydride, lithium-ion and sodium-nickel chloride. The environmental impacts described in this paper are based on a life cycle assessment (LCA) approach. One of the first critical stages of LCA is the definition of an appropriate and specific functional unit for electric and hybrid vehicle application. Most of the known LCA studies concerning batteries were performed while choosing different functional units, although this choice can influence the final results. An adequate functional unit, allowing to compare battery technologies in their real life vehicle application should be chosen. The results of the LCA are important as they will be used as a decision support for the end-of-life vehicles directive 2000/53/EC (Official Journal of the European Communities L269/24 2000). As a consequence, a thorough analysis is required to define an appropriate functional unit for the assessment of batteries for electric vehicles. This paper discusses this issue and will mainly focus on traction batteries for electric vehicles. Main Features An overview of the different parameters to be considered in the definition of a functional unit to compare battery technologies for battery electric vehicle application is described and discussed. An LCA study is performed for the most relevant potential functional units. SimaPro 6 is used as a software tool and Eco-indicator 99 as an impact assessment method. The influence of the different selected functional units on the results (Eco-indicator Points) is discussed. The environmental impact of the different electric vehicle battery technologies is described. A sensitivity analysis illustrates the robustness of the obtained results. Results and Discussion Five main parameters are considered in each investigated functional unit: an equal depth of discharge is assumed, a relative number of batteries required during the life of the vehicle is calculated, the energy losses in the battery and the additional vehicle consumption due to the battery mass is included and the same lifetime distance target is taken into account. On the basis of the energy content, battery mass, number of cycles and vehicle autonomy three suitable functional units are defined: ‘battery packs with an identical mass’, ‘battery packs with an identical energy content’ and ‘battery packs with an identical one-charge range’. The results show that the differences in the results between these three functional units are small and imply less variation on the results than the other uncertainties inherent to LCA studies. On the other hand, the results obtained using other, less adequate, functional units can be quite different. Conclusions When performing an LCA study, it’s important to choose an appropriate functional unit. Most of the time, this choice is unambiguous. However, sometimes this choice is more complicated when different correlated parameters have to be considered, as it is the case for traction batteries. When using a realistic functional unit, the result is not influenced significantly by the choice of one out of the three suitable functional units. Additionally, the life cycle assessment allowed concluding that three electric vehicle battery technologies have a comparable environmental impact: lead-acid, nickel-cadmium and nickel-metal hydride. Lithium-ion and sodium-nickel chloride have lower environmental impacts than the three previously cited technologies when used in a typical battery electric vehicle application. Recommendations and Perspectives The article describes the need to consider all relevant parameters for the choice of a functional unit for an electric vehicle battery, as this choice can influence the conclusions. A more standardised method to define the functional unit could avoid these differences and could make it possible to compare the results of different traction battery LCA studies more easily.     

Life cycle assessment of composite materials made of recycled thermoplastics combined with rice husks and cotton linters

Background, aim, and scope  The goal of this study is to analyze the environmental impact of new composite materials obtained from the combination of recycled thermoplastics (polypropylene [PP] and high-density polyethylene [HDPE]) and biodegradable waste of little economic value, namely, rice husks and recycled cotton. The environmental impact of these materials is compared to the impact of virgin PP and HDPE using life cycle assessment. Materials and methods  From-cradle-to-grave life cycle inventory studies were performed for 1 kg of each of the three new composites: PP+cotton linters, PP+rice husks, and HDPE+cotton linters. Inventory data for the recycling of thermoplastics and cotton were obtained from a number of recycling firms in Spain, while environmental data concerning rice husks were obtained mainly from one rice-processing company located in Spain. Life cycle inventory data for virgin thermoplastics were acquired from PlasticsEurope. Two different scenarios—incineration and landfilling—were considered for the assessment of disposal phase. A quantitative impact assessment was performed for four impact categories: global warming over a hundred years, nonrenewable energy depletion, acidification, and eutrophication. Results  The composites subject to analysis exhibited a significantly reduced environmental impact during the materials acquisition and processing phases compared to conventional virgin thermoplastics in all of the impact categories considered. The use of fertilizers for rice cultivation, however, impaired the results of the rice husk composite in the eutrophication category where it nevertheless outperformed its conventional counterparts. The compounding phase fundamentally implies an electric consumption. The disposal phase was analyzed with regard to emissions in the global warming category. Discussion  Composites obtained from renewable sources are still in an incipient state of development in comparison with petroleum-derived plastics. In the future, as mass production of these plastics becomes more widespread, their environmental impact can be expected to reach lower levels than those obtained in our study. The new materials exhibited adequate mechanical performance for the application analyzed (structures used in aquaculture). Conclusions  The composites subject to analysis exhibited a significantly reduced environmental impact compared to conventional virgin thermoplastics using 1 kg of material as a functional unit. Recommendations and perspectives  In accordance with the International Organization for Standardization 14044:2006 standard, it would be advisable to avoid impact allocation. This posed some difficulties, since rice husks are a coproduct of rice. Thus, some impact allocation was done in our study on the basis of economic value. It would also be advisable to take the land use impact category into consideration when performing comparative studies between composites and conventional plastics, albeit the definition of this category is currently the subject of scientific debate.     

Life cycle assessment of commercial furniture: a case study of Formway LIFE chair

Background, aims and scope  The environmental aspects of companies and their products are becoming more significant in delivering competitive advantage. Formway Furniture, a designer and manufacturer of office furniture products, is a New Zealand-based company that is committed to sustainable development. It manufactures two models of the light, intuitive, flexible and environmental (LIFE) office chair: one with an aluminium base and one with a glass-filled nylon (GFN) base. It was decided to undertake a life cycle assessment (LCA) study of these two models in order to: (1) determine environmental hotspots in the life cycle of the two chairs (goal 1); (2) compare the life cycle impacts of the two chairs (goal 2); and (3) compare alternative potential waste-management scenarios (goal 3). The study also included sensitivity analysis with respect to recycled content of aluminium in the product. Materials and methods  The LIFE chair models consist of a mix of metal and plastic components manufactured by selected Formway suppliers according to design criteria. Hence, the research methodology included determining the specific material composition of the two chair models and acquisition of manufacturing data from individual suppliers. These data were compiled and used in conjunction with pre-existing data, specifically from the ecoinvent database purchased in conjunction with the SimaPro7 LCA software, to develop the life cycle inventory of the two chair models. The life cycle stages included in the study extended from raw-material extraction through to waste management. Impact assessment was carried out using CML 2 baseline 2000, the methodology developed by Leiden University’s Institute for Environmental Sciences. Results  This paper presents results for global warming potential (GWP100). The study showed a significant impact contribution from the raw-material extraction/refinement stage for both chair models; aluminium extraction and refining made the greatest contribution to GWP100. The comparison of the two LIFE chair models showed that the model with the aluminium base had a higher GWP100 impact than the model with the GFN base. The waste-management scenario compared the GWP100 result when (1) both chair models were sent to landfill and (2) steel and aluminium components were recycled with the remainder of the chair sent to landfill. The results showed that the recycling scenario contributed to a reduced GWP100 result. Since production and processing of aluminium was found to be significant, a sensitivity analysis was carried out to determine the impact of using aluminium with different recycled contents (0%, 34% and 100%) in both waste-management scenarios; this showed that increased use of recycled aluminium was beneficial. The recycling at end-of-life scenarios was modelled using two different end-of-life allocation approaches, i.e. consequential and attributional, in order to illustrate the variation in results caused by choice of allocation approach. The results using the consequential approach showed that recycling at end-of-life was beneficial, while use of the attributional method led to a similar GWP100 as that seen for the landfill scenario. Discussion  The results show that the main hotspot in the life cycle is the raw-material extraction/refinement stage. This can be attributed to the extraction and processing of aluminium, a material that is energy intensive. The LIFE chair model with the aluminium base has a higher GWP100 as it contains more aluminium. Sensitivity analysis pertaining to the recycled content of aluminium showed that use of aluminium with high recycled content was beneficial; this is because production of recycled aluminium is less energy intensive than production of primary aluminium. The waste-management scenario showed that recycling at end-of-life resulted in a significantly lower GWP100 than landfilling at end-of-life. However, this result is dependent upon the modelling approach used for recycling. Conclusions  With respect to goal 1, the study found that the raw-material extraction/refinement stage of the life cycle was a significant factor for both LIFE chair models. This was largely due to the use of aluminium in the product. For goal 2, it was found that the LIFE chair model with the aluminium base had a higher GWP100 than the GFN model, again due to the material content of the two models. Results for goal 3 illustrated that recycling at end-of-life is beneficial when using a system expansion (consequential) approach to model recycling; if an attributional ‘cut-off’ approach is used to model recycling at end-of-life, there is virtually no difference in the results between landfilling and recycling. Sensitivity analysis pertaining to the recycled content of aluminium showed that use of higher recycled contents leads to a lower GWP100 impact. Recommendation and perspectives  Most of the GWP100 impact was contributed during the raw-material extraction/refinement stage of the life cycle; thus, the overall impact of both LIFE chair models may be reduced through engaging in material choice and supply chain environmental management with respect to environmental requirements. The study identified aluminium components as a major contributor to GWP100 for both LIFE chair models and also highlighted the sensitivity of the results to its recycled content. Thus, it is recommended that the use of aluminium in future product designs be limited unless it is possible to use aluminium with a high recycled content. With respect to waste management, it was found that a substantial reduction in the GWP100 impact would occur if the chairs are recycled rather than landfilled, assuming an expanding market for aluminium. Thus, recycling the two LIFE chair models at end-of-life is highly recommended.     

The Design of a Sustainability Assessment Standard Using Life Cycle Information

Sustainability assessment standards are currently being developed for a range of building products. This activity has been stimulated through the considerable success of the U.S. Green Building Council's (USGBC) LEED? standard. Transparent life cycle–based standards can guide manufacturers to design products that have reduced environmental impact. The use of a sustainability standard can certify performance and avoid green washing. In this article we present a logical framework for designing a sustainability assessment standard through the creation of tables that award points in the standard to be consistent with life cycle information. Certain minimum principles of consistency are articulated. In the case that the life cycle impact assessment method maps the life cycle inventory to impact through a linear weighting, two design approaches—impact category and activity substitution—are constructed to be consistent with these principles. The approach is illustrated in a case study of a partial redesign of a carpet sustainability assessment standard (NSF/ANSI‐140).     

Life cycle assessment in green chemistry

Background, Aims and Scope Using renewable feedstock and introducing biocatalysts in the chemical industry have been suggested as the key strategies to reduce the environmental impact of chemicals. The Swedish interdisciplinary programme ‘Greenchem’, is aiming to develop these strategies. One target group of chemicals for Greenchem are wax esters which can be used in wood surface coatings for wood furniture, etc. The aim of this study was to conduct a life cycle assessment of four different wood surface coatings, two wax-based coatings and two lacquers using ultra violet light for hardening (UV lacquers). One of the two wax-based coatings is based on a renewable wax ester produced with biocatalysts from rapeseed oil, denoted ‘green wax’, while the other is based on fossil feedstock and is denoted ‘fossil wax’. The two UV lacquers consist of one ‘100% UV’ coating and one ‘water-based UV’ coating. The scope was to compare the environmental performance of the new ‘green’ coating with the three coatings which are on the market today. Methods The study has a cradle-to-grave perspective and the functional unit is ‘decoration and protection of 1 m² wood table surface for 20 years’. Extensive data collection and calculations have been performed for the two wax-based coatings, whereas mainly existing LCI data have been used to characterise the production of the two UV lacquers. Results For all impact categories studied, the ‘100% UV’ lacquer is the most environmentally benign alternative. The ‘water-based UV’ is the second best alternative for all impact categories except EP, where the ‘fossil wax’ is slightly better. For GWP the ‘fossil wax’ has the highest contribution followed by the ‘green wax’. For AP and EP it is the ‘green wax’ that makes the highest environmental impact due to the contribution from the cultivation of the rapeseed and the production of the rapeseed oil. For POCP the ‘fossil wax’ makes the highest contribution, slightly higher than the contribution from the ‘green wax’. Also the energy requirements for the ‘100% UV’ lacquer is much lower than for the other coatings. The results from the toxicological evaluation conducted in this study, which was restricted to include only the UV lacquers, are inconclusive, giving different results depending on the model chosen, EDIP97 or USES. Discussion The result in this study shows that the environmental benefits of using revewable feedstock and processes based on biocatalysis in the production of wax esters used in wood surface coatings are rather limited. This is due to the high environmental impact from other steps in the life cycle of the coating. Conclusions Overall the ‘100% UV’ lacquer seems to be the best alternative from an environmental point of view. This study shows that the hot spots of the life cycle of the coatings are the production of the ingredients, but also the application and drying of the coatings. The toxicity assessment shows the need for the development of a new model, a model which finds common ground in order to overcome the current situation of diverging results of toxicity assessments. The results in this study also point to the importance of investigating the environmental performance of a product based on fossil or renewable feedstock from a life cycle perspective. Recommendations and Perspectives The results in this study show that an efficient way to improve the wood coating industry environmentally is to increase the utilization of UV lacquers that are 100% UV-based. These coatings can also be even further improved by introducing biocatalytic processes and producing epoxides and diacrylates from renewable raw material instead of the fossil-based ones produced with conventional chemical methods in use today. In doing this, however, choosing a vegetable oil with good environmental performance is important. An alternative application of the ‘green wax’ analysed in this study may be as an ingredient in health care products, for example, which may result in greater environmental benefits than when the wax is used inwood coating products. The results in this study illustrate the importance of investigating the environmental performance of a product from cradle-to-grave perspective and not consider it ‘green’ because it is based on renewable resources.     

The Environmental Importance of Energy Use in Chemical Production

In many cases, policy makers and laymen perceive harmful emissions from chemical plants as the most important source of environmental impacts in chemical production. As a result, regulations and environmental efforts have tended to focus on this area. Concerns about energy use and greenhouse gas emissions, however, are increasing in all industrial sectors. Using a life cycle assessment (LCA) approach, we analyzed the full environmental impacts of producing 99 chemical products in Western Europe from cradle to factory gate. We applied several life cycle impact assessment (LCIA) methods to cover various impact areas. Our analysis shows that for both organic and inorganic chemical production in industrial countries, energy‐related impacts often represent more than half and sometimes up to 80% of the total impacts, according to a range of LCIA methods. Resource use for material feedstock is also important, whereas direct emissions from chemical plants may make up only 5% to 10% of the total environmental impacts. Additionally, the energy‐related impacts of organic chemical production increase with the complexity of the chemicals. The results of this study offer important information for policy makers and sustainability experts in the chemical industry striving to reduce environmental impacts. We identify more sustainable energy production and use as an important option for improvements in the environmental profile of chemical production in industrial countries, especially for the production of advanced organic and fine chemicals.     

Application of Life Cycle Assessment for the Environmental Certificate of the Mercedes-Benz S-Class (7 pp)

Background, Aims and Scope Life cycle assessment (LCA) is used as a tool for design for environment (DfE) to improve the environmental performance of the Mercedes Car Group products. For the new S-Class model a brochure including an environmental certificate and comprehensive data for the product was published for the first time. The paper explains the use of LCA for these applications and presents exemplary results. Methods The environmental certificate brochure reports on processes, data and results based on the international standards for life cycle assessment (ISO 14040, ISO 14041, ISO 14042, ISO 14043), for environmental labels and declarations (ISO 14020, ISO 14021) and for the integration of environmental aspects into product design and development (ISO 14062), which are accepted by all stakeholders. Results and Discussion The compliance with these international standards and the correctness of the information contained in the certificate were reviewed and certified by independent experts. The global warming potential (GWP 100 years) of the new S-Class vehicle was reduced by 6%, the acidification potential by 2%, the eutrophication potential by 13% and the photochemical ozone creation potential by 9%. In addition, the use of parts made from renewable materials was increased by 73 percent to a total of 27 parts with a weight of about 43 kilograms. A total of 45 parts with a weight of 21.2 kilograms can be manufactured using a percentage of recycled plastics. Conclusion The application of LCA for DfE is fully integrated as a standard function in the vehicle development process. The DfE/LCA approach at the Mercedes Car Group was successful in improving the environmental performance of the new S-Class. It is shown that the objective of improving the environmental performance of the new S-Class model, compared to the previous one, was achieved. Recommendation and Outlook Vehicles are complex products with very complex interactions with the environment. Therefore, simple solutions, e.g. pure focus on fuel economy or light weighting or recycling or single material strategies, are bound to fail. It is a main task of DfE and LCA to take this fact into account and come up with more intelligent solutions. The application of LCAs for DfE and their integration as standard practice in the product development process is both the most demanding and the most rewarding. It requires a substantial effort to acquire the know-how, the data, the experience and the tools needed to generate meaningful results just in time. However, this is the way how LCA and DfE can add value – they have to be 'built' into the product.     

Loss and Benefit Caused by a Diesel Engine: From the Perspective of Human Health

This article presents a model that quantifies the health loss and benefit triggered by the life cycle of a diesel engine. The health loss and benefit are expressed in the form of disability‐adjusted life years (DALY), a metric used by the World Health Organization to conduct health impact assessments. In order to quantify the health loss, life cycle assessment methodology is applied. To estimate the health benefit, the relationship between DALY per capita and gross domestic product (GDP) per capita is modeled. The change in GDP per capita, resulting from the change in the level of employee compensation caused by the life cycle of the diesel engine, is used to estimate the change in the level of DALY per capita. An economic input‐output model is applied to estimate the amount of employee compensation required over the life cycle of the diesel engine. This study concludes that the health benefit achieved by the socioeconomic growth, triggered by the life cycle of the diesel engine, is higher than the health loss caused by the pollutions produced over the life cycle of the diesel engine. Furthermore, the results support findings in the literature that socioeconomic growth generates a higher health benefit in a lower‐income country than in a higher‐income country. This also might be one of the reasons for another statement found in the literature that developing countries put higher priorities on economic development.     

Using LCA‐based Decomposition Analysis to Study the Multidimensional Contribution of Technological Innovation to Environmental Pressures

This article presents a general framework for macroenvironmental assessment, combining life cycle assessment (LCA) with the IPAT equation, and explores its combination with decomposition analysis to assess the multidimensional contribution of technological innovation to environmental pressures. This approach is illustrated with a case study in which carbon dioxide (CO₂) and nitrogen oxides (NO_x) air emissions from diesel passenger cars in Europe during the period 1990–2005 are first decomposed using index decomposition analysis into technology, consumption activity, and population growth effects. By a second decomposition, the contribution of a specific innovation (diesel engine) is calculated on the basis of the technology and consumption activity effects, through a technological comparison with a relevant alternative and the calculation of the rebound effect, respectively. The empirical analysis for diesel passenger cars highlights the discrepancies between the micro (LCA) and macro (IPAT‐LCA) analytical approaches. Thus, whereas diesel engines present a relatively less‐pollutant environmental product profile than their gasoline counterparts, total CO₂ and NO_x emissions would have increased partly as a consequence of their introduction, mainly driven by the increase in travel demand caused by the induced direct price rebound effect from fuel savings and fuel price differences. The counterintuitive result shows the need for such an analysis.     

Estimating Environmental Behavior Without Performing a Life Cycle Assessment

Many authors have agreed on the interest of considering environmental concerns in the early stages of product development. However, most eco‐design tools are based on life cycle assessment principles and require a model to give information about the product's environmental performance. This modeling can have negative effects on team performance and on the potential for innovation, not to mention on the project's duration. Additionally, the model requires information that is not available in the early design stages. This article analyzes the potential of inferring conclusions about the life cycle stages with the highest impact by using similar products. From a database of previous products, environmental profile estimations are carried out, that is, the assessments of the contribution of each life cycle stage to the total impact and the variability of this measure. It is then possible to discard—or ensure consideration of—life cycle stages. Furthermore, the level of the conclusions is assessed on a five‐point scale. The proposed approach is applied to four case studies with different levels of abstraction and the relevance of the conclusions is assessed. The article resolves the problems regarding potential for estimating the distribution of the environmental impacts along the life cycle.     

Method for Setting Environmental Targets in Product Development: Incorporating Use‐Phase Impact by Subsystem

In order to address environmental aspects during redesign, the product specification must include related targets that are reachable and challenging. To do so, this article presents a stepwise approach for combining benchmarking information and component impact, out of life cycle assessment (LCA) scaling. This approach requires allocating environmental impacts to each subsystem, which is not commonly done for some life cycle phases in LCAs, most particularly for use phases. This article includes a methodology for allocating such impacts. The underlying criterion is avoiding complex calculations, to make the method more agile. This methodology is presented in a full case study of a complex product: a knuckle boom crane. The case study results in the percentage of impact reduction needed to meet the market average or best competitors. In particular, the results show that the cylinders of the crane have a high contribution to environmental impact, not only because of their weight, but also because of the active power consumed to activate them.     

Environmental impact of thin-film GaInP/GaAs and multicrystalline silicon solar modules produced with solar electricity

Background, aim, and scope  The environmental burden of photovoltaic (PV) solar modules is currently largely determined by the cumulative input of fossil energy used for module production. However, with an increased focus on limiting the emission of CO₂ coming from fossil fuels, it is expected that renewable resources, including photovoltaics, may well become more important in producing electricity. A comparison of the environmental impacts of PV modules in case their life cycle is based on the use of PV electricity in contrast to conventional electricity can elucidate potential environmental drawbacks in an early stage of development of a solar-based economy. The goal of this paper is to show for ten impact categories the environmental consequences of replacing fossil electricity with solar electricity into the life cycle of two types of PV modules. Materials and methods  Using life cycle assessment (LCA), we evaluated the environmental impacts of two types of PV modules: a thin-film GaInP/GaAs tandem module and a multicrystalline silicon (multi-Si) module. For each of the modules, the total amount of fossil electricity required in the life cycle of the module was substituted with electricity that is generated by a corresponding PV module. The environmental impacts of the modules on the midpoint level were compared with those of the same modules in case their life cycle is based on the use of conventional electricity. The environmental impacts were assessed for Western European circumstances with an annual solar irradiation of 1000 kWh/m². For the GaInP/GaAs module, the environmental impacts of individual production steps were also analysed. Results  Environmental burdens decreased when PV electricity was applied in the life cycle of the two PV modules. The impact score reductions of the GaInP/GaAs module were up to a factor of 4.9 (global warming). The impact score reductions found for the multi-Si module were up to a factor of 2.5 (abiotic depletion and global warming). Reductions of the toxicity scores of both module types were smaller or negligible. This is caused by a decreased use of fossil fuels, on the one hand, and an increased consumption of materials for the production of the additional solar modules used for generating the required PV electricity on the other. Overall, the impact scores of the GaInP/GaAs module were reduced more than the corresponding scores of the multi-Si module. The contribution analysis of the GaInP/GaAs module production steps indicated that for global warming, the cell growth process is dominant for supply with conventional electricity, while for the solar scenario, the frame becomes dominant. Regarding freshwater aquatic ecotoxicity scores associated with the life cycle of the GaInP/GaAs module, the cell growth process is dominant for supply with conventional electricity, while the reactor system for the cell growth with the associated gas scrubbing system is dominant for the solar scenario. Discussion  There are uncertainties regarding the calculated environmental impact scores. This paper describes uncertainties associated with the used economic allocation method, and uncertainties because of missing life cycle inventory data. For the GaInP/GaAs module, it was found that the global warming impact scores range from −66% to +41%, and the freshwater aquatic ecotoxicity scores (for an infinite time horizon) range from −40% to +300% compared to the default estimates. For both impact categories, the choices associated with the allocation of gallium, with the electricity mix, with the conversion efficiency of the commercially produced GaInP/GaAs cells, and with the yield of the cell growth process are most influential. For freshwater aquatic ecotoxicity, the uncertainty concerning the lifetime of the reactor system for the GaInP/GaAs cell growth process and the gas scrubbing system is particularly relevant. Conclusions  Use of PV electricity instead of fossil electricity significantly reduces the environmental burdens of the GaInP/GaAs and the multi-Si module. The reductions of the toxicity scores, however, are smaller or negligible. Toxicity impacts of the GaInP/GaAs cells can be reduced by improvement of the yield of the cell growth process, a reduced energy demand in the cell growth process, reduction of the amount of stainless steel in the cell growth reactor system and the gas scrubbing system, and a longer lifetime of these systems. Recommendations and perspectives  Because the greenhouse gas emissions associated with the production of fossil-fuel-based electricity have an important share in global warming on a world-wide scale, switching to a more extensive use of solar power is helpful to comply with the present international legislation on the area of global warming reduction. As reductions in toxicity impact scores are smaller or negligible when fossil electricity is replaced by PV electricity, it is desirable to give specific attention to the processes which dominantly contribute to these impact categories. Furthermore, in this study, a shift in ranking of several environmental impacts of the modules has been found when PV electricity is used instead of fossil electricity. The results of a comparative LCA can thus be dependent of the electricity mix used in the life cycles of the assessed products. Electronic supplementary material  The online version of this article (doi:) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.