去泛素化酶与肿瘤

泛素化修饰(ubiquitination modification)广泛存在于真核生物,通过26S蛋白酶体降解途径或信号传递等,改变蛋白质稳定性、定位和活性等功能,参与细胞的周期、转录、炎症、肿瘤和免疫等各项功能,是一类复杂的动态调控系统.泛素化调节是一个可逆过程,被泛素连接酶(ubiquitin ligase,E3)...     

Role of Ubiquitination in Endocytic Trafficking of G‐Protein‐Coupled Receptors

Lysyl ubiquitination has long been known to target cytoplasmic proteins for proteasomal degradation, and there is now extensive evidence that ubiquitination functions in vacuolar/lysosomal targeting of membrane proteins from both the biosynthetic and endocytic pathways. G‐protein‐coupled receptors (GPCRs) represent the largest and most diverse family of membrane proteins, whose function is of fundamental importance both physiologically and therapeutically. In this review, we discuss the role of ubiquitination in the vacuolar/lysosomal downregulation of GPCRs through the endocytic pathway, with a primary focus on lysosomal trafficking in mammalian cells. We will summarize evidence indicating that mammalian GPCRs are regulated by ubiquitin‐dependent mechanisms conserved in budding yeast, and then consider evidence for additional ubiquitin‐dependent and ‐independent regulation that may be specific to animal cells.     

植物ESCRT复合体的功能研究进展

真核细胞中,功能高度保守的内体蛋白分选转运装置ESCRT在胞吞途径和蛋白分泌途径中均扮演重要角色。植物细胞中,该装置包含ESCRT-Ⅰ、ESCRT-Ⅱ、ESCRT-Ⅲ和VPS4/SKD1复合体4个亚基,但缺乏ESCRT-0亚基。ESCRT的每个亚基均由多个蛋白构成。目前,针对ESCRT的研究已经证实,其在泛素化的膜蛋白进入多囊泡体/液泡前体(MVB/PVC)内腔过程中发挥重要调控作用;同时在自噬途径以及应对环境胁迫等方面也具有重要的调节功能。该文首先介绍了植物中ESCRT复合体的组成及生物学功能,然后总结了植物中特有ESCRT复合体组分蛋白的最新研究进展,最后探讨了有关ESCRT复合体研究中尚未解决的重要科学问题。     

Multivesicular Endosome Biogenesis in the Absence of ESCRTs

The endosomal sorting complex required for transport (ESCRT) protein machinery comprises four complexes, ESCRT-0, ESCRT-I, ESCRT-II and ESCRT-III, that facilitate receptor sorting into the lumen of multivesicular endosomes (MVEs) in order to terminate signalling receptors for final degradation within the lysosomes. Even though ESCRT proteins appear to be essential for the biogenesis of MVEs in Saccharomyces cerevisae , it is not clear whether ESCRT-independent pathways for MVE biogenesis exist in higher organisms. In this study we maximized inhibition of ESCRT-dependent pathway by depleting cells of key subunits of all four ESCRTs and followed MVE formation and epidermal growth factor (EGF) receptor (EGFR) traffic using electron and confocal microscopy. There was a dramatic alteration in the morphology of components of the endocytic pathway in ESCRT-depleted cells, but early and late endosomes stayed clearly differentiated. Importantly, although EGF-induced formation of MVEs was highly sensitive to ESCRT depletion, EGF-independent formation of MVEs could still occur. The MVEs remaining in ESCRT-depleted cells contained enlarged intralumenal vesicles into which EGFRs were not sorted. Our observations suggest that both ESCRT-dependent and ESCRT-independent mechanisms of MVE biogenesis exist in mammalian cells.     

Arrestin-Mediated Endocytosis of Yeast Plasma Membrane Transporters

Many plasma membrane transporters in yeast are endocytosed in response to excess substrate or certain stresses and degraded in the vacuole. Endocytosis invariably requires ubiquitination by the HECT domain ligase Rsp5. In the cases of the manganese transporter Smf1 and the amino acid transporters Can1, Lyp1 and Mup1 it has been shown that ubiquitination is mediated by arrestin-like adaptor proteins that bind to Rsp5 and recognize specific transporters. As yeast contains a large family of arrestins, this has been suggested as a general model for transporter regulation; however, analysis is complicated by redundancy amongst the arrestins. We have tested this model by removing all the arrestins and examining the requirements for endocytosis of four more transporters, Itr1 (inositol), Hxt6 (glucose), Fur4 (uracil) and Tat2 (tryptophan). This reveals functions for the arrestins Art5/Ygr068c and Art4/Rod1, and additional roles for Art1/Ldb19, Art2/Ecm21 and Art8/Csr2. It also reveals functional redundancy between arrestins and the arrestin-like adaptors Bul1 and Bul2. In addition, we show that delivery to the vacuole often requires multiple additional ubiquitin ligases or adaptors, including the RING domain ligase Pib1, and the adaptors Bsd2, Ear1 and Ssh4, some acting redundantly. We discuss the similarities and differences in the requirements for regulation of different transporters.     

The ESCRT machinery: From the plasma membrane to endosomes and back again

Abstract

The manipulation and reorganization of lipid bilayers are required for diverse cellular processes, ranging from organelle biogenesis to cytokinetic abscission, and often involves transient membrane disruption. A set of membrane-associated proteins collectively known as the endosomal sorting complex required for transport (ESCRT) machinery has been implicated in membrane scission steps, which transform a single, continuous bilayer into two distinct bilayers, while simultaneously segregating cargo throughout the process. Components of the ESCRT pathway, which include 5 distinct protein complexes and an array of accessory factors, each serve discrete functions. This review focuses on the molecular mechanisms by which the ESCRT proteins facilitate cargo sequestration and membrane remodeling and highlights their unique roles in cellular homeostasis.     

内吞体分选转运复合体 (ESCRT) 及其在包膜病毒出芽中的作用

内吞体分选转运复合体(Endosomal sorting complex required for transport,ESCRT)主要识别泛素化修饰的膜蛋白,介导内吞小泡出芽和多泡体(Multivesicular bodies,MVBs)的形成。此外,以类似的拓扑方式,ESCRT也参与胞质分裂、自体吞噬、以及包膜病毒的出芽等过程。已有的研究表明,大量的反转录病毒和RNA病毒含有晚期结构域(Late-domains),该结构域与ESCRT组分相互作用,将ESCRT-Ⅲ和VPS4等募集在病毒组装与出芽区域,并利用ESCRT-Ⅲ使病毒粒子得以释放。最近,有研究发现,一些DNA包膜病毒、如乙肝病毒、疱疹病毒和杆状病毒等的出芽释放也依赖于宿主细胞ESCRT系统,但其机理尚需深入研究。     

A novel class of herpesvirus-encoded membrane-bound E3 ubiquitin ligases regulates endocytosis of proteins involved in immune recognition.

Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus encodes two transmembrane proteins (modulator of immune recognition [MIR]1 and MIR2) that downregulate cell surface molecules (MHC-I, B7.2, and ICAM-1) involved in the immune recognition of infected cells. This downregulation results from enhanced endocytosis and subsequent endolysosomal degradation of the target proteins. Here, we show that expression of MIR1 and MIR2 leads to ubiquitination of the cytosolic tail of their target proteins and that ubiquitination is essential for their removal from the cell surface. MIR1 and MIR2 both contain cytosolic zinc fingers of the PHD subfamily, and these structures are required for this activity. In vitro, addition of a MIR2-glutathione S-transferase (GST) fusion protein to purified E1 and E2 enzymes leads to transfer of ubiquitin (Ub) to GST-containing targets in an ATP- and E2-dependent fashion; this reaction is abolished by mutation of the Zn-coordinating residues of the PHD domain. Thus, MIR2 defines a novel class of membrane-bound E3 Ub ligases that modulates the trafficking of host cell membrane proteins.     

Arrestin-like proteins mediate ubiquitination and endocytosis of the yeast metal transporter Smf1

Many plasma membrane proteins in yeast are ubiquitinated and endocytosed, but how they are recognized for modification has remained unknown. Here, we show that the manganese transporter Smf1 is endocytosed when cells are exposed to cadmium ions, that this endocytosis depends on Rsp5-dependent ubiquitination of specific lysines and that it also requires phosphorylation at nearby sites. This phosphorylation is, however, constitutive rather than stress-induced. Efficient ubiquitination requires Ecm21 or Csr2, two members of a family of arrestin-like yeast proteins that contain several PY motifs and bind to Rsp5. Ecm21 also binds to phosphorylated Smf1, providing a link between Rsp5 and its substrate. PY motif-containing arrestin-like proteins are found in many species, including humans, and might have a general role as ubiquitin ligase adaptors.