Sternopygus castroi,a new species of Neotropical freshwater electric fish,with new synapomorphies to the genus (Sternopygidae: Gymnotiformes: Teleostei)

Sternopygus castroi n. sp. is described as a new species of sternopygid Neotropical freshwater fish from the Rio Cuieiras, tributary of Rio Negro, Amazonas State, Brazil. It differs from the other species of the genus by a combination of characters. Three new synapomorphies for Sternopygus are reported. Only Sternopygus species present a membranous integumental subopercular fold originating postero-ventrally in the opercular region, running anteriorly to the isthmus region. In Sternopygus, the membranous opercular opening is wide and S-shaped (wide but fleshy in Gymnotus). In Sternopygus there is also a medial cephalic fleshy fold at the ventral margin of the opercular membrane, directed forward and ventrally to the isthmus, surrounding the anal pore anteriorly, just behind the subopercular flap.     

Ontogeny of the electric organ discharge and the electric organ in the weakly electric pulse fish Brachyhypopomus pinnicaudatus (Hypopomidae, Gymnotiformes)

I recorded the electric organ discharges (EODs) of 331 immature Brachyhypopomus pinnicaudatus 6–88 mm long. Larvae produced head-positive pulses 1.3 ms long at 7 mm (6 days) and added a second, small head-negative phase at 12 mm. Both phases shortened duration and increased amplitude during growth. Relative to the whole EOD, the negative phase increased duration until 22 mm and amplitude until 37 mm. Fish above 37 mm produced a “symmetric” EOD like that of adult females. I stained cleared fish with Sudan black, or fluorescently labeled serial sections with anti-desmin (electric organ) or anti-myosin (muscle). From day 6 onward, a single electric organ was found at the ventral margin of the hypaxial muscle. Electrocytes were initially cylindrical, overlapping, and stalk-less, but later shortened along the rostrocaudal axis, separated into rows, and formed caudal stalks. This differentiation started in the posterior electric organ in 12-mm fish and was complete in the anterior region of fish with “symmetric” EODs. The lack of a distinct “larval” electric organ in this pulse-type species weakens the hypothesis that all gymnotiforms develop both a temporary (larval) and a permanent (adult) electric organ. Accepted: 1 March 1997     

Phylogenetic interrelationships,taxonomy, and reductive evolution in the Neotropical electric fish genus Hypopygus (Teleostei,Ostariophysi, Gymnotiformes)

A phylogenetic reconstruction of the Neotropical electric fish genus Hypopygus based on 47 parsimony‐informative morphological characters is presented. A series of synapomorphies support the hypothesis of monophyly of Hypopygus, and partially resolve species‐level relationships within the genus. Hypopygus species are recognized here as miniaturized fishes based on two criteria; first, a derived condition of diminutive body size, and; second, the presence of a suite of reductive morphological characters, including partial or total losses, simplifications, and reductions of the anal‐fin rays, scales, cranial bones, and laterosensory canal system. Reductive characters associated with miniaturization comprise 45% of the total number of characters in the phylogenetic reconstruction of the genus. Miniaturization and reductive morphological evolution in Hypopygus are discussed here in the phylogenetic context. A taxonomic revision of Hypopygus is presented, in which five new species are described, two species previously assigned to the genus are redescribed, and a single known species of Stegostenopos is redescribed and included in Hypopygus as a junior synonym. Distribution maps and a key for all eight valid species of Hypopygus are provided, based on the examination of 5014 catalogued museum specimens. © 2011 The Linnean Society of London, Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2011, 163 , 1096–1156.     

Single electrocytes produce a sexually dimorphic signal in South American electric fish,Hypopomus occidentalis (Gymnotiformes,Hypopomidae)

Summary Hypopomus occidentalis is a weakly electric Gymnotiform fish with a pulse-type electric organ discharge (EOD).Hypopomus used in this study were taken from one of the northernmost boundaries of this species, the Atlantic drainage of Panama where the animals breed at the beginning of the dry season (December). In normal breeding populations,Hypopomus occidentalis exhibit a sexual dimorphism in EOD and morphology. Mature males are large with a broad tail and have an EOD characterized by a low peak power frequency. Females and immature males are smaller, having a slender tail and EODs with higher peak power frequencies (Fig. 1). This study describes differences in the EOD and electric organ morphology between breeding field populations of male and femaleHypopomus. Changes in physiology, morphology and EOD shape which may accompany this seasonal change were examined in steroid injected fish, using standard histological and physiological techniques.A group of females were injected with hormones (5-dihydrotestosterone (DHT), estrogen or saline) to assess changes in their morphology and EOD. Animals treated with DHT developed characteristics which mimicked the sexually dimorphic characteristics of a male, while the other groups did not (see Fig. 5). Tissue from the tails of breeding males and females, and females treated with DHT, were sampled to measure the size of the electrocytes in the tail. The broader tail of males and DHT-females is composed of large electrocytes, whereas the slender tail of normal females is composed of smaller electrocytes. Therefore, the increase in the tail width in the female DHT group is caused by an enlargement of the electrocytes in this area.Intracellular recordings from the electrocytes of saline and DHT injected females show a difference in the responses of the rostral faces of the electrocytes from the two groups, which reflect the differences in their EODs. Saline-treated animals had symmetrical EODs (the first and second phase of the EOD were equal in duration and amplitude), while the physiological responses from each face of the electrocytes yielded responses that were similarly equal in duration and amplitude. DHT-treated animals had asymmetrical EODs (the first phase of the EOD was similar to that of saline treated fish and larger in amplitude and shorter in duration than the second phase) and the physiological responses of the electrocytes reflected this asymmetry. The differential recordings across the caudal face were similar to those from saline treated fish, while the responses from the rostral face were longer in duration and smaller in amplitude.These data suggest that the effects of androgens underlie the changes in single electrocytes which produce the sexually dimorphic signals and morphology present in natural breeding populations ofHypopomus occidentalis.     

Two new species and a new subgenus of toothed Brachyhypopomus electric knifefishes (Gymnotiformes,Hypopomidae) from the central Amazon and considerations pertaining to the evolution of a monophasic electric organ discharge

We describe two new, closely related species of toothed Brachyhypopomus (Hypopomidae: Gymnotiformes: Teleostei) from the central Amazon basin and create a new subgenus for them. Odontohypopomus, new subgenus of Brachyhypopomus, is diagnosed by (1) small teeth present on premaxillae; (2) medialmost two branchiostegal rays thin with blades oriented more vertically than remaining three rays; (3) background color in life (and to lesser extent in preservation) distinctly yellowish with head and sides peppered with small, widely spaced, very dark brown stellate chromatophores that greatly contrast with light background coloration; (4) a dark blotch or bar of subcutaneous pigment below the eye; (5) electric organ discharge waveform of very long duration (head-positive phase approx. 2 milliseconds or longer, head-negative phase shorter or absent) and slow pulse repetition rate (3–16 Hz). The type species of the new subgenus, Brachyhypopomus (Odontohypopomus) walteri sp. n., is diagnosed by the following additional character states: (1) subcutaneous dark pigment at base of orbit particularly prominent, (2) body semi-translucent and nearly bright yellow background coloration in life, (3) a biphasic electric organ discharge (EOD) waveform of very long duration (between 3.5 and 4 milliseconds at 25° C) with head-positive first phase significantly longer than second head-negative phase in both sexes. Brachyhypopomus (Odontohypopomus) bennetti sp. n. is diagnosed by two character states in addition to those used to diagnose the subgenus Odontohypopomus: (1) a deep electric organ, visible as large semi-transparent area, occupying approximately 14–17% body depth directly posterior to the abdominal cavity in combination with a short, but deep, caudal filament, and (2) a monophasic, head-positive EOD waveform, approximately 2.1 milliseconds in duration in both sexes. These are the only described rhamphichthyoid gymnotiforms with oral teeth, and Brachyhypopomus bennetti is the first Brachyhypopomus reported to have a monophasic (head-positive) EOD waveform. Unlike biphasic species, the waveform of its EOD is largely unaffected by tail damage from predators. Such injuries are common among specimens in our collections. This species’ preference for floating meadow habitat along the major channels of the Amazon River basin may put it at particularly high risk of predation and “tail grazing.”     

Phylogenetic systematics and historical biogeography of the Neotropical electric fish Sternopygus (Teleostei: Gymnotiformes)

Interrelationships among 10 extant species of the Neotropical electric fish Sternopygus are inferred from phylogenetic analysis of 66 morphological characters, including features of pigmentation, body proportions, meristics and osteology. A total of 287 lots containing 677 specimens were examined. The important findings of this study are: (1) S. branco is the most basal species unique among congeners in being restricted to whitewater rivers in the Central Amazon Basin, (2) S. sp. ‘cau’ from the Rio Caura of Venezuela is the sister taxon to (S. obtusirostris + S. astrabes), (3) S. castroi is a junior synonym of S. astrabes, (4) S. macrurus is the sister taxon to (S. arenatus + S. xingu + S. aequilabiatus species group) and (5) S. arenatus is the sister taxon to (S. xingu + S. aequilabiatus species group). A key to the adults of Sternopygus species is provided. Several features of S. astrabes previously thought to be plesiomorphic are now considered derived, including: short body cavity, paedomorphic cranial osteology, and the habitat restriction to terra firme streams. Sternopygus species assemblages in the Pacific (trans‐Andean) and Atlantic (cis‐Andean) slopes of northwestern South America are not monophyletic and do not result exclusively from local or regional radiations. The clade composed of S. macrurus, S. arenatus, S. xingu and the S. aequilabiatus species group is inferred to predate the Middle Miocene uplift of the Eastern Cordillera (c. 11.8–12.2 Ma). As currently recognized S. macrurus is the most widely distributed and most eurytopic gymnotiform species, inhabiting all hydrogeographical regions of tropical South America and most lowland aquatic habitats. Other Sternopygus species have much more restricted geographic and ecological distributions. Perceptions of phylogenetic patterns in Sternopygus are shown to be highly sensitive to taxon sampling.     

Interspecific variation in gill size is correlated to ambient dissolved oxygen in the Amazonian electric fish Brachyhypopomus (Gymnotiformes: Hypopomidae)

Gymnotiform electric fish assemblage structure is strongly correlated to dissolved oxygen (DO) availability, which exhibits considerable heterogeneity among Amazonian aquatic systems. DO is known to influence the respiratory morphology of gymnotiform fishes, and yet species-level variation among congeners endemic to alternative DO regimes has not been examined. We describe the DO environment experienced by four congeneric species of gymnotiforms (Brachyhypopomus) and correlate this to quantitative variation in a suite of gill metrics. Whitewater floodplain lakes flanking nutrient-rich whitewater rivers are seasonally hypoxic, exhibiting oxygen concentrations close to 0 mg/l from late April until September. In contrast, DO levels in blackwater floodplain lakes and in terra firme forest stream habitats remain high throughout the year. Two common species of Brachyhypopomus restricted to periodically anoxic whitewater floodplain exhibited a substantially greater gill size than two common species restricted to the perpetually well-oxygenated waters of blackwater floodplain lakes and terra firme stream systems. Discriminant Function Analysis (DFA) based on gill metrics separated the species that live in seasonally anoxic whitewater floodplain species from those that live in perpetually-well oxygenated habitats. Our observations suggest a history of adaptive divergence in the gill morphology of Brachyhypopomus associated with oxygen availability.     

Cryptic species in the Neotropical fish genus Curimatopsis (Teleostei,Characiformes)

Detritivores of the fish family Curimatidae are assigned to eight genera, one of which, the Curimatopsis, with only five species, is the least speciose genus and sister to other seven genera in the family. Ongoing morphological investigations reveal, however, the likely existence of additional species. In this study, fifty‐one specimens of Curimatopsis from multiple rivers of the Amazon, Paraguay and Suriname drainages were identified morphologically according to the present species concepts and then barcoded using the universal cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI) mitochondrial marker. Species delimitation analyses were conducted using Bayesian methods through the general mixed Yule‐coalescent analysis combined with conventional likelihood, genetic distance and haplotypic diversity approaches. We found eleven well‐supported clusters that represent four of the named species and seven cryptic, undescribed species of Curimatopsis. Our results show a clear delimitation of species boundaries constrained by distinct Amazonian river ecotones that may have promoted intrageneric lineage diversification. This is the first of a series of genetic studies applicable to future taxonomic, phylogenetic and evolutionary studies across the Curimatidae.     

Chromosomal diversity in three species of electric fish (Apteronotidae,Gymnotiformes) from the Amazon Basin

Cytogenetic studies were carried out on samples of Parapteronotus hasemani, Sternarchogiton preto and Sternarchorhamphus muelleri (Apteronotidae, Gymnotiformes) from the Amazon basin. The first two species exhibited both a 2n = 52 karyotype, but differed in their karyotypic formulae, distribution of constitutive heterochromatin, and chromosomal location of the NOR. The third species, Sternarchorhamphus muelleri, was found to have a 2n = 32 karyotype. In all three species the DAPI and chromomycin A3 staining results were consistent with the C-banding results and nucleolar organizer region (NOR) localization. The 18S rDNA probe confirmed that there was only one pair of ribosomal DNA cistron bearers per species. The telomeric probe did not reveal interstitial telomeric sequences (ITS). The karyotypic differences among these species can be used for taxonomic identification. These data will be useful in future studies of these fishes and help understanding the phylogenetic relationships and chromosomal evolution of the Apteronotidae.     

A new species of electric knifefish,genus Compsaraia (Gymnotiformes: Apteronotidae) from the Amazon River,with extreme sexual dimorphism in snout and jaw length

Abstract

A new species of the neotropical electric fish genus Compsaraia is described from the western Amazon of Peru and Brazil. Compsaraia samueli is distinguishable from all other apteronotids by sexual dimorphism in which mature males exhibit extreme elongation and slenderness of the snout and jaws. Compsaraia samueli is readily distinguishable from its only congener, C. compsa, by more caudal‐fin rays (17–18 vs. 13–16), a shorter caudal peduncle (mean length 9% vs. 34% body length to end of anal fin), a less tapering body shape in lateral profile (mean ratio of body depth at origins of anal fin and dorsal organ 93% vs. 75%), and a smaller maximum adult body size (230 vs. 305 mm). The genus Compsaraia is readily separated from other apteronotids by a pale antorbital stripe and a pale L‐shaped patch over the supra‐temporal canal. The phylogenetic position of C. samueliis estimated by inclusion in a previously published data matrixof osteological and other morphological characters. Comparisons of the cranial bones in apteronotids shows the derived morphology of C. samueli to be a composite of three developmentally and phylogenetically discrete characters: (1) positive allometric growth before sexual maturity in both sexes of the pre‐orbital region of the neurocranium, (2) positive allometric growth of the (oral) jaws, and (3) secondary sexual dimorphism of snout and jaw morphology. The genus Compsaraia represents one of at least three phylogenetically independent cases of snout elongation and one of at least four cases of jaw elongation within the Apteronotidae. Compsaraia samueli also represents one of at least four cases of secondary sexual dimorphism in snout and jaw length within the Apteronotidae. The phylogenetic distribution of snout and jaw characters within the Apteronotidae suggests the influence of both sexual and trophic functional influences on the evolution of head morphology.     

Gymnotus capanema, a new species of electric knife fish (Gymnotiformes, Gymnotidae) from eastern Amazonia, with comments on an unusual karyotype

Gymnotus capanema n. sp. is described on the basis of cytogenetic, morphometric, meristic and osteological data from nine specimens (one male and eight females) from the municipality of Capanema, Pará, in the eastern Amazon of Brazil. Later, three additional specimens were found in museums and regarded as nontypes (not cytogenetically analysed). Gymnotus capanema, which occurs in sympatry with Gymnotus cf. carapo cytotype 2n = 42 (30m/sm + 12st/a) exhibits a novel karyotype for the genus, with 2n = 34 (20m/sm + 14st/a). Gymnotus capanema can be unambiguously diagnosed from all congeners on the basis of a combination of characters from external anatomy, pigmentation and osteology. The constitutive heterochromatin, rich in adenine-thymine (A-T) base pairs [4',6 diamidino-2-phenylindole dihydrochloride (DAPI) positive], occurs in the centromeric region of all of the chromosomes, and in the pericentromeric and the entire short arm of some chromosomes. The nucleolar organizing region (NOR), stained by silver nitrate, chromomycin A(3) (CMA(3)) and 18S ribosomal (r)DNA fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH), occurs in the short arm of pair 15. FISH, with telomeric probes did not show interstitial telomeric sequences (ITS), despite the reduced 2n in comparison to the karyotypes of other species of Gymnotus. The karyotype of G. capanema, with a reduced 2n, is strikingly different from all other previously studied congeners.     

Directional characteristics of tuberous electroreceptors in the weakly electric fish,Hypopomus (Gymnotiformes)

This paper is an electrophysiological study of the directionality of the tuberous electroreceptors of weakly electric fish. We recorded from two classes of tuberous electroreceptors known for pulse gymnotiforms: Burst Duration Coders (BDCs), and Pulse Markers (PMs). Both code for stimulus amplitude, although the dynamic range for BDCs is greater, and both exhibit strong directional preferences. Polar plots of spike number (for BDCs) or spike threshold (for PMs) versus electric field azimuth, are figure-8 shaped with two asymmetrical, elliptical lobes separated by 180°. The best azimuth of these two types of receptors from a given body region correlate with each other and with measures of best azimuth for transepidermal current flow. The shape and asymmetry of the directionality profiles appear to be caused by filter dynamics of the receptors. Pulse Markers are located on the anterior part of the body surface while Burst Duration Coders are located all over. The best directions of receptors in the anterior third of the body vary systematically with location from 0° to 180°. This region is probably critical for determining the direction of local electric fields. Together these receptors provide the CNS with sufficient information to construct a map of horizontal plane electric field directions.Abbreviations BDC Burst Duration Coder - ELL electrosensory lateral line lobe - EOD electric organ discharge - nALL anterior lateral line nerve - PM Pulse Marker     

Nine polymorphic microsatellite loci in the Neotropical electric eel Eigenmannia (Teleostei: Gymnotiformes)

Ten microsatellite loci were isolated from a species of the Neotropical electric eel, Eigenmannia, a genus of freshwater fish characterized by small populations and low vagility. Nine microsatellites were polymorphic, the number of alleles ranging from seven to 27, and values of observed heterozygosity ranging from 0.327 to 0.741. These loci were developed for population genetic studies of Eigenmannia sp. 2, however, cross‐amplification carried out with other species of this genus as well as other Gymnotiformes genera indicate that these molecular markers are also potentially useful for population‐level studies in closely related species.     

Tylanthera (Melastomataceae), a new genus of two species endemic to Thailand

The new genus Tylanthera and its two species, T. tuberosa and T. cordata , are described. The genus is endemic to Thailand, and the species are known only from their type collections.     

长江上游特有种长鳍吻鮈种群数量和资源利用评估

长鳍吻鮈(Rhinogobio ventralis)为长江上游特有种, 由于过度捕捞和大坝建设, 其种群生存受到极大威胁。为了解三峡工程蓄水后、金沙江一期工程蓄水前该物种的种群动态, 作者利用2007-2009年长江上游江津和宜宾江段调查获取的体长频率数据, 评估了其生长和死亡参数、种群数量及资源利用情况。结果表明, 长江上游长鳍吻鮈渔获群体体长范围为52-250 mm, 体重范围为2.7-307.2 g, 平均体长为150.8 ± 40.7 mm, 平均体重为72.3 ± 49.7 g。江津江段长鳍吻鮈平均体长(168.6 ± 29.5 mm)显著大于宜宾江段(125.6 ± 41.2 mm)。长鳍吻鮈体长-体重关系为: W = 6.06 × 10^-6L^3.20 (R² = 0.98, P < 0.01, n = 436)。由体长频率法拟合出渐近体长(L_∞)为338 mm, 生长系数(k)为0.24/yr。由Pauly公式、Gunderson和Dygert公式、Jensen公式等3种方法估算出其平均自然死亡系数为0.43。由长度转渔获物曲线估算出江津和宜宾江段长鳍吻鮈的总死亡系数分别为2.26和2.09。江津和宜宾江段长鳍吻鮈资源开发率分别为0.81和0.79, 已超过由Beverton-Holt动态综合模型估算出的最大开发率0.57和0.62。由体长实际种群分析估算出2007、2008和2009年江津江段长鳍吻鮈种群数量分别为68,247、67,432和176,266尾, 平均为103,982尾; 宜宾江段种群数量分别为22,953尾、46,340尾和34,021尾, 平均为34,438尾, 表明江津江段种群数量高于宜宾江段。长鳍吻鮈资源已被过度开发, 建议加强种群动态监测, 延长禁渔期及开展栖息地修复等措施保护这一特有物种。     

Tuthillia, a new Neotropical psyllid genus (Homoptera: Psylloidea)

Tuthillia gen.n. (Homoptera: Psylloidea) is erected for four Neotropical species: canabina sp.n. (the type-species from Belize and Panama), cognata sp.n. (Brazil), latipennis sp.n. (Panama) and iuncta sp.n. (Brazil). It is suggested that Tuthillia forms a monophyletic group with the ciriacremine genera Ciriacremum, Kleiniella and Pal-mapenna. However, only iuncta possesses an R-M cross vein in the forewing, a character which has been used to define the ciriacremines in the past. It seems, therefore, that this character is unstable and alternative synapomorphies are discussed. The genital morphology of Tuthillia is similar to that found in both Ciriacreminae and Diaphorininae (Aphalaridae). It is speculated that these subfamilies represent previously unrecognized sister groups defined using the genital characters as synapomorphies.