p53 engages the cGAS/STING cytosolic DNA sensing pathway for tumor suppression

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cGLRs are a diverse family of pattern recognition receptors in innate immunity

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STING信号通路的研究进展

干扰素基因刺激因子(Stimulator of interferon gene, STING)作为固有免疫系统的关键性接头蛋白,在外源或内源DNA介导的免疫应答中发挥重要作用,广泛参与宿主体内的多种信号传导过程。概述了STING信号通路分子机制及其在抗病毒感染、自身免疫疾病、神经系统疾病和肿瘤中的作用,介绍了常见的STING激动剂和抑制剂,以期为STING的进一步研究提供参考。     

Recognition of the unique structure of DNA:RNA hybrids

Targeting nucleic acids using small molecules routinely uses the end products in the conversion pathway of "DNA to RNA, RNA to protein". However, the intermediate processes in this path have not always been targeted. The DNA-RNA interaction, specifically DNA:RNA hybrid formation, provides a unique target for controlling the transfer of genetic information through binding by small molecules. Not only do DNA:RNA hybrids differ in conformation from widely targeted DNA and RNA, the low occurrence within biological systems further validates their therapeutic potential. Surprisingly, a survey of the literature reveals only a handful of ligands that bind DNA:RNA hybrids; in comparison, the number of ligands designed to target DNA is in the thousands. DNA:RNA hybrids, from their scientific inception to current applications in ligand targeting, are discussed.     

RNA:DNA hybrids are a novel molecular pattern sensed by TLR9

The sensing of nucleic acids by receptors of the innate immune system is a key component of antimicrobial immunity. RNA:DNA hybrids, as essential intracellular replication intermediates generated during infection, could therefore represent a class of previously uncharacterised pathogen‐associated molecular patterns sensed by pattern recognition receptors. Here we establish that RNA:DNA hybrids containing viral‐derived sequences efficiently induce pro‐inflammatory cytokine and antiviral type I interferon production in dendritic cells. We demonstrate that MyD88‐dependent signalling is essential for this cytokine response and identify TLR9 as a specific sensor of RNA:DNA hybrids. Hybrids therefore represent a novel molecular pattern sensed by the innate immune system and so could play an important role in host response to viruses and the pathogenesis of autoimmune disease.     

新型胞质DNA感受通路：cGAS-STING的研究进展

细胞胞质中存在的游离DNA一直被宿主的固有免疫系统当做潜在的危险信号,但免疫系统识别和清除这些危险信号的机制还不明确.近几年有研究发现,DNA感受器(DNA sensor)是宿主感受DNA和免疫防御的桥梁,目前已经有超过10种DNA感受器被发现,而干扰素刺激基因(stimulator of interferon genes,STING,也称为TMEM173、MPYS、MITA和ERIS)作为一种DNA感受通路下游关键的接头分子,在感受胞质DNA和免疫防御方面起着重要的信号传递作用,胞质中的DNA可通过DNA感受器激活STING,再激活Ⅰ型干扰素和其他细胞因子,进而启动机体的免疫反应.近些年,胞质中游离DNA如何激活STING,进而如何在体内启动免疫反应以产生抗病毒或抗菌作用的机制研究取得了显著进展.最近,在哺乳动物细胞中发现了一种新型的核酸转移酶cGAS(cyclic GMP-AMPsynthase),它能识别DNA并能产生一种内源性的环化二核苷酸cGAMP(cyclic GMP-AMP)激活STING.本文将最近关于cGAS的发现、胞质DNA通过cGAS激活STING及STING活化后激活机体免疫反应的机制进行了综述.     

Species‐specific detection of the antiviral small‐molecule compound CMA by STING

Extensive research on antiviral small molecules starting in the early 1970s has led to the identification of 10‐carboxymethyl‐9‐acridanone (CMA) as a potent type I interferon (IFN) inducer. Up to date, the mode of action of this antiviral molecule has remained elusive. Here we demonstrate that CMA mediates a cell‐intrinsic type I IFN response, depending on the ER‐resident protein STING. CMA directly binds to STING and triggers a strong antiviral response through the TBK1/IRF3 route. Interestingly, while CMA displays extraordinary activity in phosphorylating IRF3 in the murine system, CMA fails to activate human cells that are otherwise responsive to STING ligands. This failure to activate human STING can be ascribed to its inability to bind to the C‐terminal ligand‐binding domain of human STING. Crystallographic studies show that two CMA molecules bind to the central Cyclic diguanylate ( c‐diGMP)‐binding pocket of the STING dimer and fold the lid region in a fashion similar, but partially distinct, to c‐diGMP. Altogether, these results provide novel insight into ligand‐sensing properties of STING and, furthermore, unravel unexpected species‐specific differences of this innate sensor.     

Cytosolic DNA sensing by cGAS/STING promotes TRPV2-mediated Ca2+ release to protect stressed replication forks

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Phosphoinositide Interactions Position cGAS at the Plasma Membrane to Ensure Efficient Distinction between Self- and Viral DNA

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Activation of PKR by RNA misfolding: HDV ribozyme dimers activate PKR

Protein Kinase R (PKR), the double-stranded RNA (dsRNA)-activated protein kinase, plays important roles in innate immunity. Previous studies have shown that PKR is activated by long stretches of dsRNA, RNA pseudoknots, and certain single-stranded RNAs; however, regulation of PKR by RNAs with globular tertiary structure has not been reported. In this study, the HDV ribozyme is used as a model of a mostly globular RNA. In addition to a catalytic core, the ribozyme contains a peripheral 13-bp pairing region (P4), which, upon shortening, affects neither the catalytic activity of the ribozyme nor its ability to crystallize. We report that the HDV ribozyme sequence alone can activate PKR. To elucidate the RNA structural basis for this, we prepared a number of HDV variants, including those with shortened or lengthened P4 pairing regions, with the anticipation that lengthening the P4 extension would yield a more potent activator since it would offer more base pairs of dsRNA. Surprisingly, the variant with a shortened P4 was the most potent activator. Through native gel mobility and enzymatic structure mapping experiments we implicate misfolded HDV ribozyme dimers as the PKR-activating species, and show that the shortened P4 leads to enhanced occupancy of the RNA dimer. These observations have implications for how RNA misfolding relates to innate immune response and human disease.     

DNA hypomethylation leads to cGAS‐induced autoinflammation in the epidermis

DNA methylation is a fundamental epigenetic modification, important across biological processes. The maintenance methyltransferase DNMT1 is essential for lineage differentiation during development, but its functions in tissue homeostasis are incompletely understood. We show that epidermis‐specific DNMT1 deletion severely disrupts epidermal structure and homeostasis, initiating a massive innate immune response and infiltration of immune cells. Mechanistically, DNA hypomethylation in keratinocytes triggered transposon derepression, mitotic defects, and formation of micronuclei. DNA release into the cytosol of DNMT1‐deficient keratinocytes activated signaling through cGAS and STING, thus triggering inflammation. Our findings show that disruption of a key epigenetic mark directly impacts immune and tissue homeostasis, and potentially impacts our understanding of autoinflammatory diseases and cancer immunotherapy.     

The ubiquitin E3 ligase TRIM10 promotes STING aggregation and activation in the Golgi apparatus

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Evolving A RIG-I Antagonist: A Modified DNA Aptamer Mimics Viral RNA

Vertebrate organisms express a diversity of protein receptors that recognize and respond to the presence of pathogenic molecules, functioning as an early warning system for infection. As a result of mutation or dysregulated metabolism, these same innate immune receptors can be inappropriately activated, leading to inflammation and disease. One of the most important receptors for detection and response to RNA viruses is called RIG-I, and dysregulation of this protein is linked with a variety of disease states. Despite its central role in inflammatory responses, antagonists for RIG-I are underdeveloped. In this study, we use invitro selection from a pool of modified DNA aptamers to create a high affinity RIG-I antagonist. A high resolution crystal structure of the complex reveals molecular mimicry between the aptamer and the 5′-triphosphate terminus of viral ligands, which bind to the same amino acids within the CTD recognition platform of the RIG-I receptor. Our study suggests a powerful, generalizable strategy for generating immunomodulatory drugs and mechanistic tool compounds.     

STING orchestrates the crosstalk between polyunsaturated fatty acid metabolism and inflammatory responses

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Attenuation of cGAS‐STING signaling is mediated by a p62/SQSTM1‐dependent autophagy pathway activated by TBK1

Negative regulation of immune pathways is essential to achieve resolution of immune responses and to avoid excess inflammation. DNA stimulates type I IFN expression through the DNA sensor cGAS, the second messenger cGAMP, and the adaptor molecule STING. Here, we report that STING degradation following activation of the pathway occurs through autophagy and is mediated by p62/SQSTM1, which is phosphorylated by TBK1 to direct ubiquitinated STING to autophagosomes. Degradation of STING was impaired in p62‐deficient cells, which responded with elevated IFN production to foreign DNA and DNA pathogens. In the absence of p62, STING failed to traffic to autophagy‐associated vesicles. Thus, DNA sensing induces the cGAS‐STING pathway to activate TBK1, which phosphorylates IRF3 to induce IFN expression, but also phosphorylates p62 to stimulate STING degradation and attenuation of the response.     

Mitochondrial DNA in the regulation of innate immune responses

Mitochondrion is known as the energy factory of the cell, which is also a unique mammalian organelle and considered to be evolved from aerobic prokaryotes more than a billion years ago. Mitochondrial DNA, similar to that of its bacterial ancestor’s, consists of a circular loop and contains significant number of unmethylated DNA as CpG islands. The innate immune system plays an important role in the mammalian immune response. Recent research has demonstrated that mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) activates several innate immune pathways involving TLR9, NLRP3 and STING signaling, which contributes to the signaling platforms and results in effector responses. In addition to facilitating antibacterial immunity and regulating antiviral signaling, mounting evidence suggests that mtDNA contributes to inflammatory diseases following cellular damage and stress. Therefore, in addition to its well-appreciated roles in cellular metabolism and energy production, mtDNA appears to function as a key member in the innate immune system. Here, we highlight the emerging roles of mtDNA in innate immunity.     

Saturated fatty acids dampen the immunogenicity of cancer by suppressing STING

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The RIG‐I‐like receptor LGP2 inhibits Dicer‐dependent processing of long double‐stranded RNA and blocks RNA interference in mammalian cells

In vertebrates, the presence of viral RNA in the cytosol is sensed by members of the RIG‐I‐like receptor (RLR) family, which signal to induce production of type I interferons (IFN). These key antiviral cytokines act in a paracrine and autocrine manner to induce hundreds of interferon‐stimulated genes (ISGs), whose protein products restrict viral entry, replication and budding. ISGs include the RLRs themselves: RIG‐I, MDA5 and, the least‐studied family member, LGP2. In contrast, the IFN system is absent in plants and invertebrates, which defend themselves from viral intruders using RNA interference (RNAi). In RNAi, the endoribonuclease Dicer cleaves virus‐derived double‐stranded RNA (dsRNA) into small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) that target complementary viral RNA for cleavage. Interestingly, the RNAi machinery is conserved in mammals, and we have recently demonstrated that it is able to participate in mammalian antiviral defence in conditions in which the IFN system is suppressed. In contrast, when the IFN system is active, one or more ISGs act to mask or suppress antiviral RNAi. Here, we demonstrate that LGP2 constitutes one of the ISGs that can inhibit antiviral RNAi in mammals. We show that LGP2 associates with Dicer and inhibits cleavage of dsRNA into siRNAs both in vitro and in cells. Further, we show that in differentiated cells lacking components of the IFN response, ectopic expression of LGP2 interferes with RNAi‐dependent suppression of gene expression. Conversely, genetic loss of LGP2 uncovers dsRNA‐mediated RNAi albeit less strongly than complete loss of the IFN system. Thus, the inefficiency of RNAi as a mechanism of antiviral defence in mammalian somatic cells can be in part attributed to Dicer inhibition by LGP2 induced by type I IFNs. LGP2‐mediated antagonism of dsRNA‐mediated RNAi may help ensure that viral dsRNA substrates are preserved in order to serve as targets of antiviral ISG proteins.