Maternal nativity status and pregnancy outcome among U.S.-born Filipinos.

Using 1979-87 Hawaii vital record data on single live births, this study compares by nativity status of the mother the maternal characteristics and pregnancy outcomes of resident Filipino women. Among ethnic minorities in the United States, the pregnancy outcomes of U.S.-born mothers have been reported to compare unfavorably to their foreign-born counterparts. In this study, unequivocally preferential pregnancy outcome indicators were not observed for foreign-born women. Contrary to expectations, a significant, but modest, increase in the risk of preterm delivery was found for infants of Philippines-born mothers, along with a less favorable mean birth weight and gestational age. As a growing minority population in the United States, the atypical determinants and patterns of pregnancy outcome in this population warrants further investigation.     

Maternal nativity status and pregnancy outcome among U.S.‐born Filipinos

Abstract

Using 1979–87 Hawaii vital record data on single live births, this study compares by nativity status of the mother the maternal characteristics and pregnancy outcomes of resident Filipino women. Among ethnic minorities in the United States, the pregnancy outcomes of U.S.‐born mothers have been reported to compare unfavorably to their foreign‐born counterparts. In this study, unequivocally preferential pregnancy outcome indicators were not observed for foreign‐born women. Contrary to expectations, a significant, but modest, increase in the risk of preterm delivery was found for infants of Philippines‐born mothers, along with a less favorable mean birth weight and gestational age. As a growing minority population in the United States, the atypical determinants and patterns of pregnancy outcome in this population warrants further investigation.     

Maternal age and pregnancy outcome--an anthropological approach

At both extremes of reproductive phase female pregnancy outcome is described as poor. Beside a high rate of anovulatory cycles, pregnancies at these phases of the reproductive span are considered as risky for obstetric complications, and increased maternal and newborn morbidity and mortality. In the present study the associations between the age as well as somatic characteristics such as prepregnancy weight, stature, pelvic dimensions and pregnancy weight gain of 10765 women ageing between 12 and 49 years and newborn body dimensions and the mode of delivery as well as uterine child presentation were analysed. With increasing maternal age, maternal and newborn body dimensions increased significantly. Furthermore, extremely young mothers showed the lowest rates of caesarean sections, while mothers older than 40 years experienced the significantly highest rate of caesarean sections. Regarding newborn weight status, for mothers older than 35 years the highest rate of low weight newborns (< 2500 g) and the highest rate of macrosome newborns (> 4000 g) were found. Special risks were found in mothers older than 35 years, so the lower rates of ovulatory cycles during this phase of life may be interpreted as an adaptation to increased risks for complications and poor pregnancy outcome.     

Hormones and sexual behavior associated with postconception perineal swelling in the sooty mangabey (Cercocebus torquatus atys)

Three studies were conducted with female sooty mangabeys to describe the occurrence of perineal swelling during pregnancy and to document the associated patterns of ovarian hormone secretion and sexual behavior. Menstrual cycles and pregnancies were charted in 29 female subjects by recording daily vaginal bleeding and perineal swelling. As in other swelling species, maximum perineal tumescence corresponded with the periovulatory phase of the cycle; however, a second tumescence was recorded during pregnancy, with a peak at 49 days postconception. The swelling patterns were similar with the exception that deturgescence was slower during pregnancy. In a second study, blood samples were obtained weekly from nine females to document the estradiol (E₂) and progesterone (P₄) profiles during pregnancy. Analyses revealed increased E₂ concentrations and low P₄ levels in association with the postconception swelling. A third study compared sexual behavior during ovulatory and post-conception tumescent peaks. Behavioral data revealed that, although there was no overall difference in male mount rate to females during the ovulatory and postconception maximum swelling period, when only the alpha male was considered, significantly fewer mounts were directed to females exhibiting a post-conception versus an ovulatory maximum tumescence.     

Influence of moving to the UK on maternal health behaviours: prospective cohort study

Objective To compare health behaviours during pregnancy (smoking and alcohol consumption) and after birth (initiation and duration of breast feeding) between British/Irish white mothers and mothers from ethnic minority groups; and, in mothers from ethnic minority groups, to examine whether indicators of acculturation (generational status, language spoken at home, length of residency in the United Kingdom) were associated with these health behaviours.Design Prospective nationally representative cohort study.Setting England.Participants 6478 British/Irish white mothers and 2110 mothers from ethnic minority groups.Main outcome measures Any smoking during pregnancy; any alcohol consumption during pregnancy; initiation of breast feeding; breast feeding for at least four months.Results Compared with British/Irish white mothers, mothers from ethnic minority groups were less likely to smoke (15% v 37%) or consume alcohol (14% v 37%) during pregnancy but more likely to initiate breast feeding (86% v 69%) and breast feed for at least four months (40% v 27%). Among mothers from ethnic minority groups, first and second generation mothers were more likely to smoke during pregnancy (odds ratio 3.85, 95% confidence interval 2.50 to 5.93, and 4.70, 2.49 to 8.90, respectively), less likely to initiate breast feeding (0.92, 0.88 to 0.97, and 0.86, 0.75 to 0.99), and less likely to breast feed for at least four months (0.72, 0.62 to 0.83, and 0.52, 0.30 to 0.89) than immigrants, after adjustment for sociodemographic characteristics. There were no consistent differences in alcohol consumption. Among immigrants, for every additional five years spent in the UK the likelihood of mothers smoking during pregnancy increased by 31% (4% to 66%) and they were 5% (0% to 10%) less likely to breast feed for at least four months.Conclusions After immigration, maternal health behaviours worsen with length of residency in the UK. Health professionals should not underestimate women’s likelihood of engaging in risky health behaviours because of their ethnicity.     

The epidemiology of white full-term infants with short crown-heel lengths for gestational ages at birth

Fetal growth retardation was diagnosed in 137 (7.8 percent) of 1,757 white full-term infants who had crown-heel lengths below the fifth percentiles for their gestational ages. The incidence of short infants was 121 (11.1 percent) among 1,093 mothers with high-risk pregnancies compared to 16 (2.4 percent) in 664 low-risk mothers (p less than 0.0001). There were four high-risk categories: spontaneous premature rupture of membranes (PROM), fetal conditions, complications of pregnancy, and adverse maternal practices. The incidence of short infants was significantly higher in each of the four high-risk categories than in the low-risk group. There were three other conditions that were present in all pregnancies that were associated with the frequency of short infants: maternal height, socioeconomic status of head of household, and sex of infant. A short maternal height (under 157.7 cm = 62 inches) was significantly associated with an increase in short infants among mothers who smoked cigarettes at any level during pregnancy and among mothers with PROM in combination with other risks, but not in the group of 664 low-risk mothers. Significantly more short girls than short boys were born to mothers who smoked ten or more cigarettes a day throughout pregnancy or who had multiple adverse maternal practices, but no statistically significant differences were noted among mothers who smoked fewer than ten cigarettes per day, among those with PROM as the only risk factor, or among those with medical or obstetrical complications. Moreover, those mothers who were in socioeconomic groups III and IV and had other risk factors had a significantly higher incidence of short infants than did similar mothers in socioeconomic groups I and II.     

Maternal anti-D concentrations and outcome in rhesus haemolytic disease of the newborn.

The relation between maternal anti-D concentrations, measured against the British working standard, and outcome of rhesus-sensitised pregnancies was studied. There is a clear relation between increasing anti-D concentrations and the chance of a severely affected baby. Of those pregnancies (78) where serial anti-D concentrations remained below 4 IU/ml, no baby had a cord haemoglobin below 10 g/dl and three had exchange transfusions. In contrast, of those mothers (106) with anti-D concentrations above 4 IU/ml, 23 had babies with a cord haemoglobin below 10 g/dl and 79 babies had exchange transfusions. It is suggested that those pregnancies where anti-D concentrations remain below 4 IU/ml represent a relatively safe group in which amniocentesis may be avoided.     

Idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura in pregnancy and neonatal period

In pregnancy and neonatal period both mother and child are endangered by bleeding complications due to maternal idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura. Obstetrical and perinatal management therefore must aim at increasing maternal and fetal platelet count. In our paper six patients in nine pregnancies are reported. Two of them (five pregnancies) were treated with corticosteroids, four of the patients were successfully treated with i.v. immunoglobulins (IgG). Longterm steroid application and splenectomy during pregnancy may be hazardous for mother and fetus. IgG i.v. administration in contrast offers a new and safe way to control maternal and fetal platelet counts during pregnancy, delivery and the neonatal period.     

High-risk pregnancy and hypoluteoidism in the bitch

High-risk pregnancies are those in which the prevalence of maternal, fetal and/or perinatal morbidity or mortality is likely to be higher than that of the general obstetrical population. Some maternal characteristics associated with risk to maternal, fetal and/or perinatal health are readily identifiable prior to conception, such as advanced maternal age, brachycephalic breed, or a previous history of pregnancy loss. Others, such as gestational diabetes or a singleton litter, are recognized after conception. Early recognition of the problem (i.e. the risk), anticipation of the potential sequelae, and development of an aggressive management scheme are essential for a successful outcome of a high-risk pregnancy. A previous history of pregnancy loss is a high-risk factor for recurrence during subsequent pregnancies. Infection is a common cause. In some instances, recurrent pregnancy loss is associated with low serum concentrations of progesterone. Although the mechanism(s) by which this occurs is not fully understood, the situation has been called hypoluteoidism. Whatever the cause of the risks to pregnancy, the goals of managing high-risk pregnancies are to optimize maternal, fetal and perinatal health, so as to maintain maternal health throughout pregnancy and lactation and maximize the number of healthy pups surviving to weaning age.     

High-risk pregnancy and hypoluteoidism in the bitch

High-risk pregnancies are those in which the prevalence of maternal, fetal and/or perinatal morbidity or mortality is likely to be higher than that of the general obstetrical population. Some maternal characteristics associated with risk to maternal, fetal and/or perinatal health are readily identifiable prior to conception, such as advanced maternal age, brachycephalic breed, or a previous history of pregnancy loss. Others, such as gestational diabetes or a singleton litter, are recognized after conception. Early recognition of the problem (i.e. the risk), anticipation of the potential sequelae, and development of an aggressive management scheme are essential for a successful outcome of a high-risk pregnancy. A previous history of pregnancy loss is a high-risk factor for recurrence during subsequent pregnancies. Infection is a common cause. In some instances, recurrent pregnancy loss is associated with low serum concentrations of progesterone. Although the mechanism(s) by which this occurs is not fully understood, the situation has been called hypoluteoidism. Whatever the cause of the risks to pregnancy, the goals of managing high-risk pregnancies are to optimize maternal, fetal and perinatal health, so as to maintain maternal health throughout pregnancy and lactation and maximize the number of healthy pups surviving to weaning age.     

Revisiting the Effect of Maternal Smoking during Pregnancy on Offspring Birthweight: A Quasi-Experimental Sibling Analysis in Sweden

Maternal smoking during pregnancy (SDP) seems associated with reduced birthweight in the offspring. This observation, however, is based on conventional epidemiological analyses, and it might be confounded by unobserved maternal characteristics related to both smoking habits and offspring birth weight. Therefore, we apply a quasi-experimental sibling analysis to revisit previous findings. Using the Swedish Medical Birth Register, we identified 677,922 singletons born between 2002 and 2010 from native Swedish mothers. From this population, we isolated 62,941 siblings from 28,768 mothers with discrepant habits of SDP. We applied conventional and mother-specific multilevel linear regression models to investigate the association between maternal SDP and offspring birthweight. Depending on the mother was light or heavy smoker and the timing of exposition during pregnancy (i.e., first or third trimester), the effect of smoking on birthweight reduction was between 6 and 78 g less marked in the sibling analysis than in the conventional analysis. Sibling analysis showed that continuous smoking reduces birthweight by 162 grams for mothers who were light smokers (1 to 9 cigarettes per day) and 226 g on average for those who were heavy smokers throughout the pregnancy in comparison to non-smoker mothers. Quitting smoking during pregnancy partly counteracted the smoking-related birthweight reduction by 1 to 29 g, and a subsequent smoking relapse during pregnancy reduced birthweight by 77 to 83 g. The sibling analysis provides strong evidence that maternal SDP reduces offspring birthweight, though this reduction was not as great as that observed in the conventional analysis. Our findings support public health interventions aimed to prevent SDP and to persuade those who already smoke to quit and not relapse throughout the pregnancy. Besides, further analyses are needed in order to explain the mechanisms through which smoking reduces birthweight and to identify other maternal characteristics that are common causes of both birthweight reduction and maternal smoking.     

A Prospective Study of Selenium Concentration and Risk of Preeclampsia in Pregnant Iranian Women: a Nested Case–Control Study

Preeclampsia remains a leading cause of maternal and perinatal mortality and morbidity worldwide; however, its specific etiology still remains obscure. Some studies implicate poor maternal selenium status predisposing the mother to preeclampsia. This study was designed to determine changes in plasma selenium levels in women having preeclampsia as compared with those with normal pregnancy. In a nested case–control study, 650 normal primigravida in their first 24–28 weeks participated in the study. After 3 months of follow-up of all subjects, blood selenium levels were measured in 38 women presenting consecutively with preeclampsia and in 38 women having a normal pregnancy by atomic absorption spectrophotometry. Birth outcomes were recorded, such as gestational age at delivery, height, weight, birth head circumflex and 1-min Apgar score. Preeclampsia affects about 5.84 % of pregnancies, and in our study, there were no significant differences in age, anthropometric indices, and family history of preeclampsia between the preeclamptic and control groups. The selenium concentrations in plasma in women with preeclampsia were significantly lower as compared with those in women with normal pregnancy (70.63?±?21.41 versus 82.03?±?15.54 μg/L, p?<?0.05). Being in the bottom tertile of selenium concentration (less than 62.2 μg/L) was associated with greater risk of preeclampsia in pregnant women. The reduced selenium in the maternal circulations observed in the preeclamptic mothers support the hypothesis that insufficient selenium concentration may be a contributing factor to the pathophysiological mechanisms associated with preeclampsia, and optimizing the dietary selenium intake through supplementation could produce demonstrable clinical benefits.     

Maternal diabetes and cardiovascular malformations: predominance of double outlet right ventricle and truncus arteriosus

Most studies on the relationship of maternal diabetes to cardiovascular malformations (CVM) have been prospective investigations of pregnancy outcome and therefore could not identify associations with rare cardiac lesions. The results of a retrospective study shed new light on the risks of specific cardiac defects in diabetic pregnancies. The Baltimore-Washington Infant Study, a population-based case-control investigation of CVM, provides information on maternal diabetes reported in personal interviews. Among 2259 mothers of cases, 35 (1.5%) reported diabetes present before pregnancy (called "overt") and 95 (4.2%) reported diabetes only during pregnancy (called "gestational"). Among 2,801 mothers of controls, 14 (0.5%) had overt diabetes and 83 (3.0%) had gestational diabetes. Malformation-specific risks were expressed as odds ratios (OR) with 99.5% confidence intervals (CI). The strongest associations with overt maternal diabetes were found with double outlet right ventricle (OR 21.33; 99.5% CI 3.34, 136.26), and truncus arteriosus (OR 12.81; 99.5% CI 1.43, 114.64). No significant diagnosis-specific associations were found with gestational diabetes. Non-cardiac malformations were present in 23% of infants with CVM whose mothers had overt diabetes and in 26% of infants with CVM whose mother had gestational diabetes, in 32% of infants with CVM whose mothers did not have diabetes, and in 4% of controls. Double outlet right ventricle and truncus arteriosus are malformations dependent upon neural-crest-cell-derived ectomesenchymal tissues; these are precisely the conotruncal abnormalities that result from experimental ablation of the neural crest in chick embryos. The association with diabetes suggests a further etiologic link between these two lesions.     

Correlates of agonistic and competitive interactions in pregnant baboons

Maternal condition during pregnancy is known to influence fetal viability. Recently, primatologists have suggested that certain characteristics of the fetus may influence maternal condition as well. For example, among captive pigtailed macaques (Macaca nemestrina) mothers of female infants may be at greater risk of injury during their pregnancies than mothers of male infants. Analysis of the rates of aggression, submission, competition, and wounding among free-ranging pregnant baboons (Papio cynocephalus) in Amboseli National Park generally fail to support these findings, but several other factors such as maternal dominance rank, environmental conditions during pregnancy, maternal parity, and fetal age correlate with aggression, submission, competition, and injuries sustained by pregnant female baboons.     

Risk of minor and major fetal malformations in diabetics with high haemoglobin A1c values in early pregnancy.

Maternal haemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) values were measured before the end of the 15th week of gestation in 142 pregnancies in women with insulin dependent diabetes. In pregnancies complicated by fetal malformations (n = 17) the mean initial HbA1c value was 9.5 (SD 1.8)% of the total haemoglobin concentration, which was significantly (p less than 0.001) higher than in pregnancies without malformations (8.0 (SD 1.4)%; n = 125). HbA1c values did not differ between pregnancies complicated by minor and major fetal malformations, but the rate of malformations showed a positive relation to the HbA1c value in early pregnancy (chi 2 = 11.9; p = 0.001). Fetal malformations occurred in six out of 17 pregnancies (35.3%) in mothers whose initial HbA1c value was 10% or more, in eight out of 62 pregnancies (12.9%) in mothers with initial values between 8.0% and 9.9%, and in only three out of 63 pregnancies (4.8%) in mothers with an initial value below 8.0%. These data support the hypothesis that the increased incidence of fetal malformations in mothers with insulin dependent diabetes is associated with maternal hyperglycaemia during organogenesis. Hence diabetic women who are planning to have a child--especially those with a high HbA1c value--should receive intensified metabolic control.     

Relationship between Irisin Concentration and Serum Cytokines in Mother and Newborn

IntroductionIrisin is considered to be a myokine and adipokine that may also participate in reproductive functions, as it increases significantly throughout pregnancy. However, the regulation of circulating irisin and its relationship with other cytokines has not been assessed thus far in pregnant women and their offspring.ObjectiveThe aim of this study was to evaluate differences in irisin and cytokine concentrations between women at the end of pregnancy and their offspring, as well as the relationship between maternal and newborn irisin and maternal and newborn biomarkers.MethodsTwenty-eight mother/newborn pairs were included in this study. The following biomarkers were evaluated in maternal venous and arterial umbilical cord blood samples: irisin, 27 cytokine panel, total antioxidant capacity (TAC), total plasma protein, and free fatty acid concentration.ResultsThe newborns had significantly lower irisin concentrations compared to their mothers (p = 0.03), but this difference was present only in babies born from mothers without labor prior to cesarean section delivery (p = 0.01). No significant differences in maternal and newborn irisin concentrations were found between diabetic and non-diabetic mothers or between overweight/obese and normal weight mothers. A significant positive correlation was found between TAC level and irisin concentration in newborns. Maternal and newborn interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-1RA, IL-5, IL-7, and interferon gamma-induced protein (IP)-10 levels were significantly positively correlated with irisin concentrations in both study groups. In addition, maternal IL1β, IL-5, IL-7, and IP-10 levels positively predicted maternal irisin concentrations. Furthermore, arterial cord blood TAC and IL-1β and IL1-RA levels positively predicted newborn irisin concentrations. Multiple regression analyses showed that maternal IL-13 negatively predicted offspring irisin levels (p = 0.03) and that maternal IL-1β positively predicted newborn irisin concentrations (p = 0.046).ConclusionNo evidence was found that serum irisin concentrations in mothers at pregnancy termination or those of their newborns correlated with maternal body mass index, the presence of diabetes mellitus, or free fatty acid levels. However, the results of this study indicated that cytokines might predict irisin concentration in mothers and their offspring, although interactions between irisin levels during pregnancy and the newborn have not yet been fully elucidated.     

Normal intellectual development in children born from women with hypothyroxinemia during their pregnancy

Proper maternal thyroid function is known to be essential for neural differentiation and migration in the fetus during the first half of pregnancy. The objectives of this study were to assess the relationship between thyroxin levels, in pregnant women with no thyroid disease and the intellectual development of their offspring in a non-iodine-deficient area, and to know specifically whether or not isolated hypothyroxinemia during pregnancy was associated with a lower intelligence in the offspring.Previously we had publicated values TSH, FT4, free T3 (FT3), anti-thyroid peroxidase antibodies (TPO Abs) and urinary iodine concentration (UIC) in 1322 pregnant women in our hospital area. Now we presented results of intelligence quotient in children born from these pregnancies. We assessed 455 children at one year of age using Brunet-Lezine scale. Of these, 289 children were evaluated again at 6–8 years of age using the WISC-IV. From the total group of children recruited, we established as control subgroup, children born of rigorously normal pregnancies (women with UIC > 150 μg/L, FT4 > 10th percentile and TPO-Ab negative in both trimesters). The remaining children were divided into two subgroups: those born to mothers with FT4 below the 10th percentile and the rest. No correlation was found between FT4 maternal levels, in either of trimesters studied, and the intellectual scores of offspring. No differences were found in intellectual scores comparing children born to mothers with hypothyroxinemia and those whose mothers were euthyroxinemic in both trimesters, or with the control subgroup.As conclusions we did not find any association between the levels of maternal FT4 during pregnancy and the subsequent intellectual development the offspring from these pregnancies. We attribute this result to the fact that all the pregnant women included had normal thyroid function.     

Brief communication: Fecal androgen excretion and fetal sex effects during gestation in wild Assamese macaques (Macaca assamensis)

In placental mammals, pregnancy usually is associated with an increase in maternal androgens, which may significantly impact fetal growth and differentiation, and affect postnatal development and behavior. Owing to their slow life histories and challenging social conditions, determination of maternal androgens and potential interference effects of fetal androgen production are of particular interest in wild primates. However, androgen production has been rarely investigated in wild female primates, and studies on maternal androgens during gestation in particular often do not span the entire pregnancy. Here, we characterize fecal androgen production throughout gestation in wild Assamese macaques (Macaca assamensis) using noninvasive hormone analysis and, furthermore, examine fetal sex effects on maternal androgen excretion. A total of 207 fecal samples were analyzed from seven females for concentrations of immunoreactive epiandrosterone (iEA). Fecal iEA concentrations, as predicted based on cercopithecine blood-serum patterns, increased during early gestation and were significantly higher during the first trimester compared with preconception concentrations and those recorded during later stages of gestation. Further, during the third trimester, male-carrying mothers showed significantly higher iEA concentrations compared with female-carrying mothers. This first characterization of fecal androgen excretion during gestation in Assamese macaques indicates both a maternal and fetal effect on androgen production. Although our sample size is small, our results, nevertheless, provide the basis for assessing potential influences of maternal androgens on postnatal offspring development and behavior.     

Postpartum depression: Etiology,treatment and consequences for maternal care

This article is part of a Special Issue “Parental Care”. Pregnancy and postpartum are associated with dramatic alterations in steroid and peptide hormones which alter the mothers' hypothalamic pituitary adrenal (HPA) and hypothalamic pituitary gonadal (HPG) axes. Dysregulations in these endocrine axes are related to mood disorders and as such it should not come as a major surprise that pregnancy and the postpartum period can have profound effects on maternal mood. Indeed, pregnancy and postpartum are associated with an increased risk for developing depressive symptoms in women. Postpartum depression affects approximately 10–15% of women and impairs mother–infant interactions that in turn are important for child development. Maternal attachment, sensitivity and parenting style are essential for a healthy maturation of an infant's social, cognitive and behavioral skills and depressed mothers often display less attachment, sensitivity and more harsh or disrupted parenting behaviors, which may contribute to reports of adverse child outcomes in children of depressed mothers. Here we review, in honor of the “father of motherhood”, Jay Rosenblatt, the literature on postnatal depression in the mother and its effect on mother–infant interactions. We will cover clinical and pre-clinical findings highlighting putative neurobiological mechanisms underlying postpartum depression and how they relate to maternal behaviors and infant outcome. We also review animal models that investigate the neurobiology of maternal mood and disrupted maternal care. In particular, we discuss the implications of endogenous and exogenous manipulations of glucocorticoids on maternal care and mood. Lastly we discuss interventions during gestation and postpartum that may improve maternal symptoms and behavior and thus may alter developmental outcome of the offspring.     

Ultrasound fetal measurements and pregnancy associated glycoprotein secretion in early pregnancy in cattle recipients carrying somatic clones

Somatic cloning in the bovine species leads to high levels of fetal losses which occur throughout pregnancy. These losses are most often associated with fetal overgrowth, a syndrome known as large offspring syndrome (LOS), and excessive maternal plasma pregnancy serum protein 60 (PSP60), a protein similar to a pregnancy-associated glycoprotein of 67 kDa (PAG I67) produced by the bovine placenta. Predicting the outcome of pregnancies initiated from cloned embryos has become an important issue both to prevent potential harm to the mother because of excessive fetal size at birth and also to get a better understanding of the relationships between growth, differentiation and placental functions in developing cloned fetuses. Here, we report on a systematic analysis of fetal and placental development in the first trimester of pregnancy performed by ultrasonographic imaging and by measurement of the maternal concentrations of pregnancy associated glycoproteins (PAGS), using four different radioimmunoassays (RIA) (two homologous RIA systems with PSP60 and PAG I67; two heterologous RIA systems with PAG I67 as standard and tracer, and antisera anti-caprine PAGs). We showed that crown-rump length (CRL) in clones appeared smaller than controls at 35, 50 and 62 days (P<0.05). At 62 days of pregnancy, CRL in cloned fetuses that died before 90 days was smaller compared to the other cloned fetuses (P<0.05) whereas the width of the fetal sack and the biparietal diameter (BPD) was larger in fetuses that developed LOS in late gestation (P<0.05). Maternal PAGs concentrations were statistically different between controls and all clone recipients as early as Day 34, suggesting early abnormal placental glycoprotein synthesis for clone pregnancies regardless of pregnancy outcome. This work provides a practical, non-invasive tool to follow up clone pregnancies and suggests that primary growth retardation and abnormal placental function precedes excessive fetal and placental growth at later stages of pregnancy.