Biomimetic Sensors: Active Electrolocation of Weakly Electric Fish as a Model for Active Sensing in Technical Systems

Instead of vision, many nocturnal animals use alternative senses for navigation and object detection in their dark environment. For this purpose, weakly electric mormyrid fish employ active electrolocation, during which they discharge a specialized electric organ in their tail which discharges electrical pulses. Each discharge builds up an electrical field around the fish, which is sensed by cutaneous electroreceptor organs that are distributed over most of the body surface of the fish. Nearby objects distort this electrical field and cause a local alteration in current flow in those electroreceptors that are closest to the object. By constantly monitoring responses of its electroreceptor organs, a fish can detect, localize, and identify environmental objects.Inspired by the remarkable capabilities of weakly electric fish in detecting and recognizing objects, we designed technical sensor systems that can solve similar problems of remote object sensing. We applied the principles of active electrolocation to technical systems by building devices that produce electrical current pulses in a conducting medium (water or ionized gases) and simultaneously sense local current density. Depending on the specific task a sensor was designed for devices could (i) detect an object, (ii) localize it in space, (iii) determine its distance, and (iv) measure properties such as material properties, thickness, or material faults. Our systems proved to be relatively insensitive to environmental disturbances such as heat, pressure, or turbidity. They have a wide range of applications including material identification, quality control, non-contact distance measurements, medical applications and many more. Despite their astonishing capacities, our sensors still lag far behind what electric fish are able to achieve during active electrolocation. The understanding of the neural principles governing electric fish sensory physiology and the corresponding optimization of our sensors to solve certain technical tasks therefore remain ongoing goals of our research.     

Biomimetic Sensors： Active Electrolocation of Weakly Electric Fish as a Model for Active Sensing in Technical Systems

Instead of vision, many nocturnal animals use alternative senses for navigation and object detection in their dark environment. For this purpose, weakly electric mormyrid fish employ active electrolocation, during which they discharge a specialized electric organ in their tail which discharges electrical pulses. Each discharge builds up an electrical field around the fish, which is sensed by cutaneous electroreceptor organs that are distributed over most of the body surface of the fish. Nearby objects distort this electrical field and cause a local alteration in current flow in those electroreceptors that are closest to the object. By constantly monitoring responses of its electroreceptor organs, a fish can detect, localize, and identify environmental objects.Inspired by the remarkable capabilities of weakly electric fish in detecting and recognizing objects, we designed technical sensor systems that can solve similar problems of remote object sensing. We applied the principles of active electrolocation to technical systems by building devices that produce electrical current pulses in a conducting medium (water or ionized gases) and simultaneously sense local current density. Depending on the specific task a sensor was designed for devices could (i) detect an object, (ii) localize it in space, (iii) determine its distance, and (iv) measure properties such as material properties, thickness, or material faults. Our systems proved to be relatively insensitive to environmental disturbances such as heat, pressure, or turbidity. They have a wide range of applications including material identification, quality control, non-contact distance measurements, medical applications and many more. Despite their astonishing capacities, our sensors still lag far behind what electric fish are able to achieve during active electrolocation. The understanding of the neural principles governing electric fish sensory physiology and the corresponding optimization of our sensors to solve certain technical tasks therefore remain ongoing goals of our research.     

Automatic Realistic Real Time Stimulation/Recording in Weakly Electric Fish: Long Time Behavior Characterization in Freely Swimming Fish and Stimuli Discrimination

Weakly electric fish are unique model systems in neuroethology, that allow experimentalists to non-invasively, access, central nervous system generated spatio-temporal electric patterns of pulses with roles in at least 2 complex and incompletely understood abilities: electrocommunication and electrolocation. Pulse-type electric fish alter their inter pulse intervals (IPIs) according to different behavioral contexts as aggression, hiding and mating. Nevertheless, only a few behavioral studies comparing the influence of different stimuli IPIs in the fish electric response have been conducted. We developed an apparatus that allows real time automatic realistic stimulation and simultaneous recording of electric pulses in freely moving Gymnotus carapo for several days. We detected and recorded pulse timestamps independently of the fish’s position for days. A stimulus fish was mimicked by a dipole electrode that reproduced the voltage time series of real conspecific according to previously recorded timestamp sequences. We characterized fish behavior and the eletrocommunication in 2 conditions: stimulated by IPIs pre-recorded from other fish and random IPI ones. All stimuli pulses had the exact Gymontus carapo waveform. All fish presented a surprisingly long transient exploratory behavior (more than 8 h) when exposed to a new environment in the absence of electrical stimuli. Further, we also show that fish are able to discriminate between real and random stimuli distributions by changing several characteristics of their IPI distribution.     

Long-term Behavioral Tracking of Freely Swimming Weakly Electric Fish

Long-term behavioral tracking can capture and quantify natural animal behaviors, including those occurring infrequently. Behaviors such as exploration and social interactions can be best studied by observing unrestrained, freely behaving animals. Weakly electric fish (WEF) display readily observable exploratory and social behaviors by emitting electric organ discharge (EOD). Here, we describe three effective techniques to synchronously measure the EOD, body position, and posture of a free-swimming WEF for an extended period of time. First, we describe the construction of an experimental tank inside of an isolation chamber designed to block external sources of sensory stimuli such as light, sound, and vibration. The aquarium was partitioned to accommodate four test specimens, and automated gates remotely control the animals'' access to the central arena. Second, we describe a precise and reliable real-time EOD timing measurement method from freely swimming WEF. Signal distortions caused by the animal''s body movements are corrected by spatial averaging and temporal processing stages. Third, we describe an underwater near-infrared imaging setup to observe unperturbed nocturnal animal behaviors. Infrared light pulses were used to synchronize the timing between the video and the physiological signal over a long recording duration. Our automated tracking software measures the animal''s body position and posture reliably in an aquatic scene. In combination, these techniques enable long term observation of spontaneous behavior of freely swimming weakly electric fish in a reliable and precise manner. We believe our method can be similarly applied to the study of other aquatic animals by relating their physiological signals with exploratory or social behaviors.     

Delay-Dependent Response in Weakly Electric Fish under Closed-Loop Pulse Stimulation

In this paper, we apply a real time activity-dependent protocol to study how freely swimming weakly electric fish produce and process the timing of their own electric signals. Specifically, we address this study in the elephant fish, Gnathonemus petersii, an animal that uses weak discharges to locate obstacles or food while navigating, as well as for electro-communication with conspecifics. To investigate how the inter pulse intervals vary in response to external stimuli, we compare the response to a simple closed-loop stimulation protocol and the signals generated without electrical stimulation. The activity-dependent stimulation protocol explores different stimulus delivery delays relative to the fish’s own electric discharges. We show that there is a critical time delay in this closed-loop interaction, as the largest changes in inter pulse intervals occur when the stimulation delay is below 100 ms. We also discuss the implications of these findings in the context of information processing in weakly electric fish.     

Electric Organ Discharge Displays during Social Encounter in the Weakly Electric Fish Brienomyrus niger L. (Mormyridae)

We investigated the electric organ discharge (EOD) activity of the mormyrid fish Brienomyrus niger during social encounters. The fish were contained in porous ceramic shelters and tested alone and in pairs in an experimental tank designed to restrict communication to the electrosensory modality. We moved one fish toward and away from a stationary conspecific, beginning at a distance known to be outside the range of communication (250 cm). Baseline EOD activity was recorded prior to interaction and categorized as ‘variable’, ‘regular’, and ‘scallop’. When moved closer together, the fish modulated this baseline activity in four ways: (1) At 100–130 cm apart, the stationary fish emitted a maximum of sudden EOD rate increases which defined the outer limit of its communication range. (The associated Electric Field Gradient was 1 μV/cm). (2) Long EOD cessations, which we called social silence, lasted from 5–130 s and occurred most frequently when the fish were 36 to 55 cm apart (EFG: 100 μV/cm). The duration of social silence was negatively correlated (r = ? 0.862) with the responding fish's size, and was independent of the partner's sex and size. Fish whose EOD baseline pattern was ‘scallop’ were least likely to fall electrically silent, and those that were categorized as ‘regular’ or ‘variable’ were most likely to cease discharging. (3) Within electrolocation range, fish ‘regularized’ their EOD activity while the partner was ‘silent’ (EFG: 1 mV/cm). (4) Following long EOD cessations the fish resumed discharging with characteristic EOD rebound patterns. The possible ethological significance of these findings is discussed.     

Real-Time Localization of Moving Dipole Sources for Tracking Multiple Free-Swimming Weakly Electric Fish

In order to survive, animals must quickly and accurately locate prey, predators, and conspecifics using the signals they generate. The signal source location can be estimated using multiple detectors and the inverse relationship between the received signal intensity (RSI) and the distance, but difficulty of the source localization increases if there is an additional dependence on the orientation of a signal source. In such cases, the signal source could be approximated as an ideal dipole for simplification. Based on a theoretical model, the RSI can be directly predicted from a known dipole location; but estimating a dipole location from RSIs has no direct analytical solution. Here, we propose an efficient solution to the dipole localization problem by using a lookup table (LUT) to store RSIs predicted by our theoretically derived dipole model at many possible dipole positions and orientations. For a given set of RSIs measured at multiple detectors, our algorithm found a dipole location having the closest matching normalized RSIs from the LUT, and further refined the location at higher resolution. Studying the natural behavior of weakly electric fish (WEF) requires efficiently computing their location and the temporal pattern of their electric signals over extended periods. Our dipole localization method was successfully applied to track single or multiple freely swimming WEF in shallow water in real-time, as each fish could be closely approximated by an ideal current dipole in two dimensions. Our optimized search algorithm found the animal’s positions, orientations, and tail-bending angles quickly and accurately under various conditions, without the need for calibrating individual-specific parameters. Our dipole localization method is directly applicable to studying the role of active sensing during spatial navigation, or social interactions between multiple WEF. Furthermore, our method could be extended to other application areas involving dipole source localization.     

Navigation in Familiar Environments by the Weakly Electric Elephantnose Fish,Gnathonemus petersii L. (Mormyriformes,Teleostei)

Gnathonemus petersii use electrolocation to navigate in unfamiliar environments. The goal of these experiments was to determine whether fish could learn the location of a fixed aperture after interference with selected sensory input. By manipulating environmental cues (aperture height and water depth) and comparing the fish's performance, the contributions of the electrosensory system, vision, and hydrostatic pressure were examined. The fish's task was to find a circular aperture in a wall dividing a 200-litre aquarium into two equal compartments. In experiment 1, the position of the aperture was raised by 10.1 cm after the fish had become familiar with its original location. In experiment 2, the water level was raised by 10 cm (leaving the aperture unchanged). When the aperture was raised, intact fish found the new aperture with no difficulty, whereas blind, electrically 'silent', and sham-operated fish were slow finding the new position. When the water level was raised, all fish increased the height at which they contacted the wall, increased their electric-organ discharge (EOD) rate, and located the aperture. This increase, in response to the rapid change in water depth, suggests that all fish used hydrostatic pressure cues to maintain depth orientation, and that those fish that learned the aperture height had used hydrostatic cues to locate its position. The data suggest that G. petersii develop an internal representation based on an electrosensory central expectation and hydrostatic cues. The fish develop a sensory 'image' of their immediate environment and associate a specific image with a specific depth. As the environment becomes more familiar, the fish apparently attend less to electrosensory information and navigate according to the internal representation, relying primarily on hydrostatic pressure cues.     

Short-range Navigation of the Weakly Electric Fish,Gnathonemus petersii L. (Mormyridae,Teleostei), in Novel and Familiar Environments

We investigated the electrolocation performance of the weakly electric fish, Gnathonemus petersii, in novel and familiar environments. By selectively interfering with the fish's sensory input, we determined the sensory channels necessary for navigation and orientation. The fish's task was to locate a circular aperture (diameter: 64 mm) in a wall dividing a 200–1 aquarium into two equal compartments. To assess the fish's performance, we measured (1) the time it took the fish to locate the aperture, (2) the height at which it contacted the divider, (3) its electric organ discharge rate, and (4) the frequency of divider crossings. In the first experiment (novel environment), 50 naive G. petersii assigned to five groups of 10 fish each (intact, blind, electrically “silent,” blind and “silent,” and shamoperated animals) were tested with the aperture presented randomly in one of three positions (aperture center: 7.6, 17.7, 27.8 cm from the bottom). In a novel environment, G. petersii depend on active electrolocation. Despite the changing aperture position, over the 15 trials, fish with a functioning electric organ found the aperture, whereas those without one did not. The electric organ discharge rate was inversely correlated with the amount of time spent searching for the aperture. In a second experiment (familiar environment) 20 intact fish learned the position of a fixed aperture. When we subsequently denervated the electric organ in 10 of these animals, their performance did not differ significantly from that of their conspecifics. Thus, once the fish were familiar with the aperture's position, they no longer depended on active electrolocation. We interpret and discuss this behavior as evidence for a “central expectation” and discuss its possible role in electronavigation.     

两种温度条件下四种鱼类临界游泳速度的比较

以鳜(Siniperca chuatsi)、瓦氏黄颡鱼(Pelteobagrus vachelli)、鲫(Carassius auratus)、鳙(Aristichthys nobilis)4种暖水性鱼类为研究对象,分别在(28±1)℃和(10±1)℃条件下测定它们的临界游泳速度,采用SPSS17.0统计软件进行数据的分析比较。体长相近的鱼类之间比较,鳜的绝对临界游泳速度和相对临界游泳速度均显著性低于鳙(P0.01),瓦氏黄颡鱼的绝对临界游泳速度和相对临界游泳速度均显著性低于鲫(P0.01)。通过比较两种温度条件下同种鱼的临界游泳速度,结果发现4种鱼在这两种温度条件下的临界游泳速度均有极显著性差异(P0.01),在(28±1)℃条件下4种鱼的临界游泳速度极显著性高于(10±1)℃条件下它们的临界游泳速度。     

Detection and Incidence of Specific Species of Spoilage Bacteria on Fish: I. Methodology

The ability of Pseudomonas putrefaciens to form H(2)S was found to serve as a singularly useful criterion of identity for this species and was used to directly enumerate the organism from haddock fillets by the use of pour plates of Peptone-Iron Agar. Subsurface colonies appear intensely black, whereas surface colonies are black or gray. A highly sensitive soft-agar-gelatin overlay technique has been found useful for directly determining the numbers of weakly and strongly proteolytic organisms from fish tissue.     

Four New Species of Myxosporidia from the Indian Fresh Water Fish Ophicephalus punctatus Bloch

SYNOPSIS. Four new species of Myxosporidia have been described from Ophicephalus punctatus , a fresh water fish of North India: Myxobolus aligarhensis n. sp., M. ophicephali n. sp., Unicauda basiri n. sp., and Henneguya zahoori n. sp. Observations have been made on some stages of their life-cycle other than the spores.     

四种利用不同生境蜥蜴运动能力的形态特征相关性

动物体态特征、功能表现和生境利用之间是否存在相关性是当前生态形态学领域的一个研究焦点。在实验室条件下测定分别利用开阔地面、草丛、岩石、树丛生境的 4种蜥蜴 (中国石龙子、北草蜥、山地麻蜥和变色树蜥 )的形态特征和运动能力 ,着重探讨蜥蜴运动能力与形态特征之间的相关性。 4种蜥蜴的头体长大小依次为 :中国石龙子 >变色树蜥 >北草蜥 >山地麻蜥。就相对体长而言 ,中国石龙子 >山地麻蜥和北草蜥 >变色树蜥 ,而头大小、附肢长度和尾长的种间差异趋势则相反 ;体高的种间差异为北草蜥 >中国石龙子和变色树蜥 >山地麻蜥。在平面上 ,山地麻蜥和北草蜥的速度显著大于中国石龙子和变色树蜥 ;在斜面上 ,变色树蜥和山地麻蜥的速度显著高于中国石龙子。变色树蜥斜面附着能力最强 ,中国石龙子最弱。生境利用不同的蜥蜴形态迥异 ,运动能力亦因此有显著的差异。本研究结果支持动物形态特征与其功能表现相关的观点。     

Low Fish Predation Pressure in the London Reservoirs: I. Species Composition,Density and Biomass

The London reservoirs sited in the lower Thames valley form part of a continuously flowing, drinking water supply system and as such have been wholly designed, constructed and operated by man for this sole function. This paper adds some information on the potential impact of the fish populations on the ecology of these relatively deep reservoirs. The fish fauna was studied by night shore seining (to detect inshore fish communities) and acoustically (to detect the offshore fish communities). Ruffe (Gymnocephalus cernuus) and perch (Perca fluviatilis) are the main species capable of reproduction on the steeply sloping concrete walls of the reservoirs. Cyprinids are almost absent in Wraysbury Reservoir whilst in Queen Mary and Queen Elizabeth II reservoirs they are more abundantly represented due to enhanced spawning possibilities associated with inundated marginal terrestrial plants in Queen Mary and the net-sides of empty fish cages in Queen Elizabeth II reservoir. Fish biomasses of the three London reservoirs studied are low: 6.8 kg/ha in Wraysbury Reservoir, 28.6 kg/ha in Queen Mary reservoir and 45.6 kg/ha in Queen Elizabeth II Reservoir. Coinciding with this is a zooplankton of unusually large-sized cladocerans, largely daphnids, and high fish growth rates.     

Chilodonella spp. at Four Fish Farms in Northern Finland

A total of 4.1% infestation with Chilodonella spp. was found among fish studied in 144 tanks in 1987–1989, representing 14.0% of the tanks in which fish are reared at four salmonid farms in northern Finland. Two species were found, C. hexasticha and C. piscicola, and both occurred on salmon (Salmo salar L.), sea trout [S. trutta m. trutta (L.)] and brown trout [S. t. m. lacustris (L.)]. Variability was observed in the length and width of the C. piscicola specimens and the number of ciliary rows or kineties. Large specimens which had more kinetics than average for C. piscicola were found mainly on the skin of salmon aged 1–2 years. The number of kinetics in the right ciliary band was found in stepwise logistic regression analysis to be of importance when typing C. piscicola specimens. Fingerlings were found to be more susceptible to Chilodonella infestation than older fish, and mortality varied in the range 2–10% in the course of the epizootics in the three fish species. Most mortality cases were caused by C. hexasticha, occurring mainly on the gills of the fish. Chilodonella piscicola was most often found in salmon and occurred at lower water temperatures than C. hexasticha (mean water temperature when found for the first time being 13° C and 16° C, respectively).     

Maze Learning and Recall in a Weakly Electric Fish,Mormyrus rume proboscirostris Boulenger (Mormyridae,Teleostei)1

Mormyrus rume proboscirostris, African weakly electric fish, were trained to seek shelter in a meander maze, and following path acquisition released into the empty arena with all maze cues removed, either from the original start box or from a novel site (recall). We demonstrate that fish use their active electrosense, sight, and lateral line synergistically in maze acquisition and recall. In the presence of an electric roadmap consisting of an array of aluminum and Plexiglas objects, fish employed landmark orientation. But fish ignored visual markers and relied on internalized motor routines, which was inconsistent with evidence for cognitive mapping.