Behavioral Development and Parental Investment in Captive Bongos (Tragelaphus eurycerus)

SYNOPSIS. The bongo is one of the least-studied of the Tragelaphini.In a study of five captive bongo calves, two males and threefemales, we measured several behaviors important to parentalinvestment theory (Clutton-Brock et al., 1982), in order todescribe their pattern in a rare species, and add to the databasepertaining to sex allocation theory. Variations in individualpatterns of maternal investment, such as suckling rate and boutlength, were measured and graphed over time, with sex of calf,and age and dominance of dam indicated. Instances of "thiefsuckling" by calves and juveniles were also described in termsof kinship among the animals involved. Only one measure of maternalinvestment was biased in favor of males, which had a somewhathigher birth weight than females. Other measures showed littlesex difference. Among these calves, maternal care appeared tovary more with dominance and age of the dam than with sex ofcalf. Data from these animals generally conform more closelyto those of Byers and Moodie (1990). They found little evidenceof sex-biased investment among pronghorn (Antilocapra americana)fawns, and postulated that many ungulates have such a high rateof development that further differential investment is impossible.Robust biological theories are supported by data obtained froma wide variety of species, many of which are impossible to studyclosely in the wild. Additional studies on captive populationsof sexually dimorphic species would contribute usefully to theaccumulation of data pertinent to parental investment theory.     

Observations on the behavior of captive sitatunga (Tragelaphus spekei)

Little is known about the behavior of the sitatunga. In order to learn more about their behavior, a group of sitatunga was studied at the Audubon Park and Zoological Garden. Courtship in the sitatunga begins with a male pursuing the female. The female occasionally stops, allowing the male to approach in the “low stretch” posture. If the female does not move away the male rests his chin on the female's rump and then mounts her. Males commonly horn branches, sticks, and turf. The possible functions of horning are discussed. Males also engage in sparring or “play-fighting.” Mutual grooming, vocalizations, and mother-young interactions of the sitatunga are described. The behavior of sitatunga is compared to that of other Tragelaphines.     

Activity budgets of captive Laysan ducklings (Anas laysanensis)

This study examined how diurnal activity budgets, visibility to observer, and distance to parents changed during the day and during three stages of development of captive Laysan ducklings. All behaviors except feeding, swimming, and terrestrial locomotion varied significantly across the stages of development. There was a significant time of day effect for 5 behaviors: stationary, flying, swimming, under female, and lying. A significant interaction between stage and time of day for 4 behaviors, viz., stationary, flying, under female, and out of sight, was also found. Young ducklings followed the female, were under the female, or were out of sight significantly more often than older ducklings. Older ducklings performed maintenance behaviors or boundary walking, or were stationary, flying, social, lying, or lying out of sight significantly more often than younger ducklings. Swimming and flying were most often performed late in the day, and the ducklings were stationary most often in early and late periods of the day. They were also most often under the female during early and late periods of the day. © 1992 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Influence of food distribution on behavior in captive bongos,Taurotragus euryceros: An experimental investigation

A feeding experiment was conducted to test if Bongo antelopes, being selective feeders searching for clumped quality food, show similar behavior changes as primates under similar conditions. One group of 3 females and 3 calves of Dvur Kralove Zoo was either fed clumped (all food, i.e., leaves and branches of 4 species of tree plus rye grass in one heap), or the same amount distributed over as many heaps as animals present. No increase in agonistic interactions under clumped conditions was found, but non-agonistic and sociopositive patterns increased significantly. Intake of low quality food increased under clumped conditions. Social distances and enclosure use were not significantly different. These findings are in accordance with predictions from models developed for primate feeding strategies, and suggest that selectively feeding antelopes possess behavioral mechanisms for tension-reduction similar to “contest-type” primates. Zoo Biol 16:237–245, 1997. © 1997 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Variations in Eastern bongo (Tragelaphus eurycerus isaaci) feeding practices in UK zoological collections

The feeding strategy of the Eastern bongo in the wild is unusual, poorly understood, and few captive feeding recommendations are currently available to zoos. To assess the current state of nutritional husbandry of this rare antelope, eight UK zoos were surveyed. A nutritional husbandry questionnaire was completed and bongos at each zoo were visually assessed by body condition scoring (BCS). Representative samples of the forage and browse consumed by bongos at each zoo were analyzed for nutrient composition using standard agricultural techniques. Significant differences in bongo body condition were found, indicating that zoo husbandry practices are sufficiently varied to have identifiable impacts on the physical condition of the animals. The results highlight a disparity in feeding regimes and diet quality, with significant differences found in forage and browse nutrient compositions and in vitro digestibility. Most forage samples were of a low nutritional quality. Browse provision was found to be largely opportunistic and limited in most zoos. The provision of energy-rich produce was also found to be unnecessary in maintaining a bongo herd at an ideal mean BCS. This survey provides baseline data which may be useful in establishing "good practice" standards for Eastern bongo captive nutrition and highlights several areas requiring further research.     

Ultrasonographic-guided retrieval and in vitro maturation of eland (Taurotragus oryx) and bongo (Tragelaphus eurycerus isaaci) antelope oocytes

The limited availability of gametes is a major factor hindering the development and application of assisted reproductive technologies (ART) in large non-domestic ungulates. This is partly due to the small number of captive animals and handling difficulties associated with procedures for gamete recovery. In the present study, results are reported of multi-year studies on ovarian stimulation and oocyte retrieval by ultrasonographic-guided transvaginal follicular aspiration and subsequent in vitro maturation (IVM) in eland and bongo antelopes. All procedures were conducted on sedated females handled in a hydraulic chute without inducing general anesthesia. Five estrous synchronization/ovarian stimulation protocols were evaluated and data are presented on 73 and 15 procedures in eland and bongo, respectively. Repeating procedures (< or =once/month) on the same female did not affect ovarian response or number oocytes recovered in either species. Eland females, but not the ovarian stimulation treatment, affected ovarian response. Ovarian stimulation treatment affected oocyte recovery rate in eland, but not in bongo. In both species, ovarian hormone stimulation treatment affected the distribution of follicles by size and the status of expansion of the cumulus cell investment of oocytes, but not the frequency of metaphase II oocytes during IVM. The timing of extrusion of the first polar body during IVM was more synchronous in bongo than in eland oocytes. It is concluded that Transvaginal oocyte retrieval (TVOR) can be safely and repeatedly applied in gonadotropin-treated eland and bongo females to recover oocytes that can mature in vitro. The methods described for the present study can be adapted to improve the availability of non-domestic ungulate oocytes for basic and applied studies.     

圈养林麝春季活动节律及时间分配

2006 年春季,使用红外夜间观察记录仪,对崇明东平麝场12 只成年林麝(8 雌,4 雄)的行为进行了24 h昼夜连续观察。发现春季林麝的行为有37 种,可归并为休息、摄食、运动、社会、维持和排遗6 大行为类型,据此,建构了春季林麝的行为谱。根据各行为持续时间比率和频次分析表明,林麝的主要行为为休息;雌麝的摄食行为所占的比率高于雄麝,这是由于春季雌麝妊娠的能量需求较高所致。活动节律呈典型的晨昏双峰型,清晨(4:00 ～ 6:00)和傍晚(17:00 ～ 19:00)为活动高峰;夜间活动性显著高于白天。     

Reversal of motility loss in bongo antelope (Tragelaphus eurycerus isaaci) spermatozoa contaminated with hyposmotic urine during electroejaculation

Semen collected by a combination of ampullary (rectal) massage and electroejaculation of a bongo bull was incidentally contaminated with urine (1:3.7). At 1.5h post-collection, progressive motility was 0% but some spermatozoa had intermittently twitching tails. Subsequent dilution with media and processing improved the progressive motility (up to 50%) and intact membranes (up to 71%) of spermatozoa. After thawing, the respective values were 35 and 70%. The osmolarity and pH of the contaminated supernatant was 151 mOsm and 7.45, respectively. Initial progressive motility in a non-contaminated portion of semen collected during the same procedure was 80%, and, after thawing, 60 and 90%, of the spermatozoa showed progressive motility and intact membranes, respectively. In conclusion, urine-contaminated bongo spermatozoa can regain progressive motility after dilution with isosmotic solutions and survive cryopreservation.     

丰容对圈养雌性岩羊活动时间分配的影响

为了探究环境丰容和食物丰容对岩羊行为和活动节律的影响,于2017年3月—7月,以上海动物园的5只雌性岩羊(Pseudois nayaur)为研究对象,设计环境丰容和食物丰容试验,利用瞬时扫描法对岩羊进行行为学观察,分析岩羊丰容前后昼间行为的变化。结果表明:经过环境丰容,岩羊的运动行为和反刍行为显著增加,卧息行为和其他行为显著减少,取食行为无明显变化。在环境丰容基础上,开展食物丰容后,运动行为明显减少,取食行为明显增加。卧息行为有所减少、反刍行为和其他行为有所增加,但变化均不明显。丰容后岩羊的昼间活动节律也发生了变化。取食行为呈现2个高峰期(8:00—11:00和15:00—18:00),取食行为普遍提高;运动行为在13:30—17:30时段较丰容前提前一个小时左右发生;卧息行为有相似的波动规律,但丰容后其昼间发生频次在16:00之前均降低;反刍行为波动最大,呈现出明显的2个高峰期(6:00—9:00和10:00—15:00)。试验表明,在进行环境和食物丰容后,岩羊的活动增加,优化了时间分配,福利状况得到了有效改善。     

Activity budgets and the relationship between feeding and stereotypic behaviors in Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) in a Zoo

Activity budgets were studied in eight Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) at Chester Zoo (UK) for 35 days, between January and November 1999. Recordings were made between 10:00 and 16:00 hr (with most behavior frequencies calculated between 10:00 and 14:00 hr). The elephants exhibited variation in activity depending on their age, sex, the time of day and the time of year. Only the five adult cows exhibited stereotypic behavior, with frequencies ranging from 3.9 to 29.4% of all observations. These elephants exhibited individual, diurnal and seasonal variation in stereotypic behavior. This has implications for studies that use short sampling periods and may make comparisons of data collected at different times of the day or year invalid. The six adult elephants spent 27.4–41.4% of the time feeding (between 10:00 and 14:00 hr), 22.9–42.0% standing still, 6.1–19.2% walking and 3.9–9.6% dusting. The hypothesis that the frequency of stereotypic behavior in adult cow elephants was negatively correlated with the frequency of feeding behavior was tested and was found to be true. Stereotypic behavior increased in frequency toward the end of the day—while waiting to return to the elephant house for food—and elephants spent more time stereotyping during the winter months than during the summer months. Elephants were inactive (i.e. exhibited behaviors other than locomotion) for between 70.1 and 93.9% of the time. Creating more opportunities for elephants to exhibit foraging behavior and the introduction of greater unpredictability into management regimes, especially feeding times, may reduce the frequency of stereotypic behavior and increase general activity levels. Zoo Biol 28:79–97, 2009. © 2008 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

The Palearctic blackfly Simulium equinum (Diptera: Simuliidae) as a biting pest of captive nyala antelopes (Tragelaphus angasii)

Blackflies (Diptera: Simuliidae) are cosmopolitan nuisance pests of great economic importance as well as vectors of many pathogens. After reports of massive blackfly biting of captive nyala antelopes in the Vienna Zoo, Austria, this study aimed to identify the species causing multiple skin lesions on the antelope hosts. The Palearctic species Simulium equinum, belonging to the medically and veterinary important Wilhelmia subgenus, was identified as the most likely causative agent. Barcoding and maximum likelihood analysis supported morphological species identification and highlighted the complex phylogeny of the subgenus Wilhelmia. Our study gives first evidence of the multi-host feeding blackfly S. equinum in the Vienna Zoo, thereby raising the question whether other hosts could also be bitten on a regular basis. The preliminary results urge for further analysis of blackfly breeding sites as well as the clarification of the host spectrum to assess the medical and veterinary importance of blackflies in the Zoo.     

Masturbation in captive Hylobates (gibbons)

Masturbation was observed in 9 of 52 captive adult Hylobates (gibbons) over a period of 17 years at the International Center for Gibbon Studies (ICGS). Four females and 5 males masturbated with varying degrees of regularity. The behavior may be related to a disruption in early rearing experiences of Hylobates. This is the first report on masturbation in these animals and documents that this behavior occurs infrequently in captive Hylobates. © 1994 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Enclosure environment affects the activity budgets of captive Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata)

Individuals adapt to changes in their environment, such as food availability and temperature, by adjusting the amount of time spent in different behavioral activities. These adjustments in behavior should vary across age-sex class according to specific physiological and social needs. We studied the activity budgets of three social Japanese macaque groups inhabiting either vegetated or nonvegetated enclosures in order to compare the effects of access with vegetation, as both food and substrate on resting, feeding, grooming and moving activities over a 12-month period. Daily access to natural foods for monkeys in the vegetated enclosure seems to be largely responsible for the differences in daily time budgets of these three groups. Resting time in all three groups was longer than the time devoted to other activities. Resting and moving time in the two nonvegetated enclosures was significantly longer than in the vegetated enclosure. In contrast, feeding and grooming time was significantly longer in the vegetated enclosure. Seasonal variation in time spent feeding, resting and grooming was significantly effected by enclosure type. In all three enclosures, immatures, particularly females, spent more time feeding and moving, whereas adults spent more time resting. Significant monthly variation in time spent by age-sex class was noted only for feeding and resting. Interestingly, in the vegetated enclosure, time spent feeding on natural vegetation was equal to the amount of time spent feeding on provisioned food. This suggests that factors other than energetic and nutritional needs may be important determinants of the activity budget of the species. These results have important implications for the enrichment of captive primates and our understanding of the maintenance of activity patterns by primates in the wild.     

Effects of housing differences upon activity budgets in captive sifakas (Propithecus verreauxi)

Activity budgets of captive sifakas (Propithecus verreauxi coquereli and Propithecus verreauxi verreauxi) were assessed from 500 hours of observational data obtained at the Duke University Primate Center (Durham, NC). Data were examined for behavioral differences according to gender, availability of intergroup contact, subspecies, indoor/outdoor housing, and enclosure size. Results showed few differences between the activity budgets of males and females. Several differences found in conjunction with availability of intergroup contact appeared to relate more to subspecific, than to contact, differences. Sifakas housed outdoors were more active, spending less time resting and more time in locomotion, feeding, and playing than sifakas housed indoors. The findings of this study implicate outdoor housing as a primary factor in stimulating activity in these rare prosimian primates.     

Twenty-four hour activity budgets and patterns of behavior in captive ocelots (Leopardus pardalis)

Activity budgets of captive ocelots (Leopardus pardalis) were assessed from over 547h of observational data obtained from six ocelots; two females at the Dallas Zoo (Dallas, TX), two females at the Caldwell Zoo (Tyler, TX) and a male and female at the Fossil Rim Wildlife Center (Glen Rose, TX). Data were examined for the percentage of active behaviors exhibited during the day and nighttime hours; temporal patterns of active, pace, exploratory and marking behavior, and for significance in pacing behavior between pre- and post-feeding times. The captive cats had a bimodal pattern of active behavior similar to field studies of wild ocelots, except that the timing of the active peaks were closer to the diurnal hours for the captive cats. The captive ocelots were less active than wild ocelots, and more diurnal. Also, the captive cats exhibited stereotypic pacing. When the percentage of time of active behavior was assessed for each cat, a strong variation between individuals and institution was not seen. Pacing behavior was highest prior to the feeding times for the cats. In assessing patterns of behavior, peaks in marking and exploratory behavior in the cats did not occur at the same time as the peaks in active behavior. However, we did see institutional differences in the pattern of exploratory and marking behavior, which may have been influenced by differing management practices.     

Sociosexual behavior of captive sichuan golden monkeys (Rhinopithecus roxellana)

The Sichuan golden snub-nosed monkey, Rhinopithecus roxellana, is an endangered Colobine endemic to China. The social and reproductive behavior of this species are little known, and it has rarely been kept in captivity outside China. Results from observations of a captive golden monkey pair revealed some unusual details of sociosexual behavior. Both members of the pair mounted one other, and female mounting of the male occurred nearly as often as the reverse. Male mounts were always preceded by a stereotyped behavioral sequence that included distinct facial and vocal displays. Female mounts occurred in response to male solicitation (presenting). No evidence of ejaculation was observed in association with mounts, although mounts were only observed in a distinctly sexual context. Sexual behavior was associated with aggressive displays by one or both animals and with apparently proceptive behavior by the female. All sexual behaviors showed a peak near the end of the study, although the female was continually receptive throughout the 2-month study period.     

Activity patterns and spatial use of facility by a group of captive female manatees (Trichechus manatus latirostris)

As a means to compare and contrast to free‐ranging Florida manatees, we examined the behavior and movement patterns of nine adult‐female captive manatees at Homosassa Springs Wildlife State Park (HSWSP). HSWSP has a unique manatee exhibit that consists of a natural river and a man‐made pool. Because the manatees are exposed to a natural environment including natural food resources, the study of various aspects of behavioral and physiological parameters of the captive manatees is especially valuable with this group. We determined activity pattern and spatial use of the facility by manatees over three allotted periods of a day (noon, mid‐afternoon, and late‐afternoon) and three seasons (winter, spring, and summer). Behavioral strategies of the manatees were: 1) to remain “inactive,” probably to conserve energy, during the day while the park provisioned food; 2) to alter locations during the course of the afternoon, apparently with the direction of the sun, possibly to assist with thermoregulation; and 3) to change location seasonally where and when food resources became abundant, showing a strong interest in natural vegetation as it became available. Spatial use and activity pattern of the HSWSP captive manatees apparently were influenced by energy constraints and nutrient intake by provisioned food availability over the day and natural vegetation over the study period. The behavior of the female group of manatees may have been affected by the single‐sex living arrangement. In addition, these manatees are subject to a largely invariable temperature (ca. 23°C) that may have created thermal stress and immunological suppression over time. This study demonstrated that for these captive manatees the activity patterns and spatial use were comparable to that of free‐ranging manatees in relation to the availability of food resources. Zoo Biol 0:1–17, 2006. © 2006 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.