Distribution and habitat of Nitellopsis obtusa (Characeae) in the Laurentian Great Lakes

Nitellopsis obtusa, a macroalga (Characeae) native to Europe and Asia, was found in U.S. waters of the St. Clair-Detroit River system in 1983, thus extending the range of this taxon into the Laurentian Great Lakes about 850 km from the St. Lawrence River where it was first discovered in North America in 1978. Its occurrence only in water frequented by commercial shipping vessels suggests that it is distributed via this mechanism. In the St. Clair-Detroit River system, N. obtusa was collected with a Ponar grab at four locations, and with a grapnel at one additional location. It was the ninth most frequently found macrophyte and it was most abundant at Belle Isle in the Detroit River, where the mean dry-weight biomass in Ponar samples was 0 g m^-2 in June, 37 g m^-2 in August, and 32 g m⁻² in September. Maximum biomass of this taxon in one Ponar grab at this location was 289 g m^-2 in September. The alga occurred primarily in water of relatively low current velocity (11.3 cm s⁻¹) and in association with Vallisneria americana, Myriophyllum spicatum, Potamogeton richardsonii, Najas flexilis, and Elodea canadensis. Contribution 654, Great Lakes Fishery Laboratory, Ann Arbor, MI 48105, USA Contribution 654, Great Lakes Fishery Laboratory, Ann Arbor, MI 48105, USA     

Acclimation of barley to changes in light intensity: photosynthetic electron transport activity and components

Barley seedlings (Hordeum vulgare L. Boone) were grown at 20°C with 16 h/8 h light/dark cycle of either high (H) intensity (500 mole m^-2 s^-1) or low (L) intensity (55 mole m^-2 s^-1) white light. Plants were transferred from high to low (H L) and low to high (L H) light intensity at various times from 4 to 8 d after leaf emergence from the soil. Primary leaves were harvested at the beginning of the photoperiod. Thylakoid membranes were isolated from 3 cm apical segments and assayed for photosynthetic electron transport, Photosystem II (PS II) atrazine-binding sites (Q_B), cytochrome f(Cytf) and the P-700 reaction center of Photosystem I (PS I). Whole chain, PS I and PS II electron transport activities were higher in H than in L controls. Q_B and Cytf were elevated in H plants compared with L plants. The acclimation of H L plants to low light occurred slowly over a period of 7 days and resulted in decreased whole chain and PS II electron transport with variable effects on PS I activity. The decrease in electron transport of H L plants was associated with a decrease in both Q_B and Cytf. In L H plants, acclimation to high light occurred slowly over a period of 7 days with increased whole chain, PS I and PS II activities. The increase in L H electron transport was associated with increased levels of Q_B and Cytf. In contrast to the light intensity effects on Q_B levels, the P-700 content was similar in both control and transferred plants. Therefore, PS II/PS I ratios were dependent on light environment.Abbreviations Asc ascorbate - BQ 2,5-dimethyl-p-benzoquinone - DBMIB 2,5-dibromo-3-methyl-6-isopropyl-p-benzoquinone - DCIP 2,6-dichlorophenolindophenol - H control plants grown under high light intensity - H L plants transferred from high to low light intensity - L low control plants grown under low light intensity - L H plants transferred from low to high light intensity - MV methyl viologen - P-700 photoreaction center of Photosystem I - Q_B atrazine binding site - TMPD N,N,N,N-tetramethyl-p-phenylenediamine Cooperative investigations of the United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, and the North Carolina Agricultural Research Service, Raleigh, NC. Paper No. 11990 of the Journal Series of the North Carolina Agricultural Research Service, Raleigh, NC 27695-7643, USA.     

The proton pump,high pH channels,and excitation: voltage clamp studies of intact and perfused cells ofNitellopsis obtusa

Summary The current-voltage (I/V) and conductance-voltage (G/ V) characteristics were recorded for intact and perfused (tonoplast-free) cells ofNitellopsis obtusa. In the pH₀ range 5 to 8, the I/V profile was sigmoidal and the G/V profile exhibited a maximum — these characteristics are attributed to the proton pump at the plasmalemma. The pH₀ dependence in this range was very similar to that found inChara corallina. At very alkaline pH₀ (11.0) the high conductance due to H⁺/OH^– channels was observed in intact cells but not in perfused cells. Young plants ofNitellopsis did not display bands of calcification, but did exhibit pH banding patterns in petri dishes. The pH bands were less than 5mm wide. The excitation transients in intact cells featured two peaks near the excitation threshold, but more peaks could be observed in the p.d. (potential difference) range –90 to –60 mV. The amplitude of the transients was strongly inhibited at pH₀ 11.0. In the perfused cells the currents lacked complete inhibition at some p.d. levels, but still exhibited one or two peaks. At high pH₀ this lack of inactivation was accentuated. The addition of 5 mM TEA to the outside medium abolished the excitation transients in perfused cells.Abbreviations EGTA ethylene glycol-bis (-amino-ethylether)-N,N-tetraacetic acid - PIPES piperazine-N,N-bis-(2-ethane sulfonic acid) - TEA tetraethyl ammonium     

Photosystem II chlorophyll a fluorescence lifetimes and intensity are independent of the antenna size differences between barley wild-type and chlorina mutants: Photochemical quenching and xanthophyll cycle-dependent nonphotochemical quenching of fluorescence

Photosystem II (PS II) chlorophyll (Chl) a fluorescence lifetimes were measured in thylakoids and leaves of barley wild-type and chlorina f104 and f2 mutants to determine the effects of the PS II Chl a+b antenna size on the deexcitation of absorbed light energy. These barley chlorina mutants have drastically reduced levels of PS II light-harvesting Chls and pigment-proteins when compared to wild-type plants. However, the mutant and wild-type PS II Chl a fluorescence lifetimes and intensity parameters were remarkably similar and thus independent of the PS II light-harvesting antenna size for both maximal (at minimum Chl fluorescence level, F_o) and minimal rates of PS II photochemistry (at maximum Chl fluorescence level, F_m). Further, the fluorescence lifetimes and intensity parameters, as affected by the trans-thylakoid membrane pH gradient (pH) and the carotenoid pigments of the xanthophyll cycle, were also similar and independent of the antenna size differences. In the presence of a pH, the xanthophyll cycle-dependent processes increased the fractional intensity of a Chl a fluorescence lifetime distribution centered around 0.4–0.5 ns, at the expense of a 1.6 ns lifetime distribution (see Gilmore et al. (1995) Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 92: 2273–2277). When the zeaxanthin and antheraxanthin concentrations were measured relative to the number of PS II reaction center units, the ratios of fluorescence quenching to [xanthophyll] were similar between the wild-type and chlorina f104. However, the chlorina f104, compared to the wild-type, required around 2.5 times higher concentrations of these xanthophylls relative to Chl a+b to obtain the same levels of xanthophyll cycle-dependent fluorescence quenching. We thus suggest that, at a constant pH, the fraction of the short lifetime distribution is determined by the concentration and thus binding frequency of the xanthophylls in the PS II inner antenna. The pH also affected both the widths and centers of the lifetime distributions independent of the xanthophyll cycle. We suggest that the combined effects of the xanthophyll cycle and pH cause major conformational changes in the pigment-protein complexes of the PS II inner or core antennae that switch a normal PS II unit to an increased rate constant of heat dissipation. We discuss a model of the PS II photochemical apparatus where PS II photochemistry and xanthophyll cycle-dependent energy dissipation are independent of the Peripheral antenna size.Abbreviations Ax antheraxanthin - BSA bovine serum albumin - c_x lifetime center of fluorescence decay component x - CP chlorophyll binding protein of PS II inner antenna - DCMU 3-(3,4-dichlorophenyl)-1,1-dimethylurea - DTT dithiothreitol - f_x fractional intensity of fluorescence lifetime component x - F_m, F_m maximal PS II Chl a fluorescence intensity with all Q_A reduced in the absence, presence of thylakoid membrane energization - F_o minimal PS II Chl a fluorescence intensity with all Q_A oxidized - F_v=F_m–F_o variable level of PS II Chl a fluorescence - HPLC high performance liquid chromatography - k_A rate constant of all combined energy dissipation pathways in PS II except photochemistry and fluorescence - k_F rate constant of PS II Chl a fluorescence - LHCIIb main light harvesting pigment-protein complex (of PS II) - N_pig mols Chl a+b per PS II - NPQ=(F_m/F_m–1) nonphotochemical quenching of PS II Chl a fluorescence - PAM pulse-amplitude modulation fluorometer - PFD photon-flux density, mols photons m^–2 s^–1 - PS II Photosystem II - P680 special-pair Chls of PS II reaction center - Q_A primary quinone electron acceptor of PS II - V_x violaxanthin - w_x width at half maximum of Lorentzian fluorescence lifetime distribution x - Zx zeaxanthin - pH trans-thylakoid proton gradient - % MathType!MTEF!2!1!+-% feaafiart1ev1aaatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn% hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXafv3ySLgzGmvETj2BSbqef0uAJj3BZ9Mz0bYu% H52CGmvzYLMzaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqr1ngBPrgifHhDYfgasa% acOqpw0xe9v8qqaqFD0xXdHaVhbbf9v8qqaqFr0xc9pk0xbba9q8Wq% Ffea0-yr0RYxir-Jbba9q8aq0-yq-He9q8qqQ8frFve9Fve9Ff0dme% GabaqaaiGacaGaamqadaabaeaafiaakeaacqGH8aapcqaHepaDcqGH% +aGpdaWgaaWcbaGaamOraiaad2gaaeqaaaaa!4989!\[< \tau > _{Fm}\],% MathType!MTEF!2!1!+-% feaafiart1ev1aaatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn% hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXafv3ySLgzGmvETj2BSbqef0uAJj3BZ9Mz0bYu% H52CGmvzYLMzaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqr1ngBPrgifHhDYfgasa% acOqpw0xe9v8qqaqFD0xXdHaVhbbf9v8qqaqFr0xc9pk0xbba9q8Wq% Ffea0-yr0RYxir-Jbba9q8aq0-yq-He9q8qqQ8frFve9Fve9Ff0dme% GabaqaaiGacaGaamqadaabaeaafiaakeaacqGH8aapcqaHepaDcqGH% +aGpdaWgaaWcbaGaamOraiaad+gaaeqaaOGaeyypa0Zaaabqaeaaca% WGMbWaaSbaaSqaaiaadIhaaeqaaOGaam4yamaaBaaaleaacaWG4baa% beaaaeqabeqdcqGHris5aaaa!50D3!\[< \tau > _{Fo} = \sum {f_x c_x }\] average lifetime of Chl a fluorescence calculated from a multi-exponential model under F_m, F_o conditions     

Short-term acclimation of the photosynthetic electron transfer chain to changing light: a mathematical model

Photosynthetic eukaryotes house two photosystems with distinct light absorption spectra. Natural fluctuations in light quality and quantity can lead to unbalanced or excess excitation, compromising photosynthetic efficiency and causing photodamage. Consequently, these organisms have acquired several distinct adaptive mechanisms, collectively referred to as non-photochemical quenching (NPQ) of chlorophyll fluorescence, which modulates the organization and function of the photosynthetic apparatus. The ability to monitor NPQ processes fluorometrically has led to substantial progress in elucidating the underlying molecular mechanisms. However, the relative contribution of distinct NPQ mechanisms to variable light conditions in different photosynthetic eukaryotes remains unclear. Here, we present a mathematical model of the dynamic regulation of eukaryotic photosynthesis using ordinary differential equations. We demonstrate that, for Chlamydomonas, our model recapitulates the basic fluorescence features of short-term light acclimation known as state transitions and discuss how the model can be iteratively refined by comparison with physiological experiments to further our understanding of light acclimation in different species.     

Influence of energy flux and quality of light on the molecular organization of the photosynthetic apparatus in Scenedesmus

The photosynthetic apparatus of the unicellular green alga Scenedesmus obliquus adapts to different levels and qualities of light as documented by the fluence-rate curves of photosynthetic oxygen evolution. Cultures adapted to low fluence rates of white light (5W·m^-2) have more chlorophyll (Chl) per cell mass, a higher chlorophyll to carotenoid ratio and a doubling of the chlorophyll to cytochrome f ratio compared with cells adapted to high fluence rates of white light (20W·m^-2). Only small differences can be observed in the halfrise time of fluorescence induction, the electrophoretic profile of the pigment-protein complexes and the Chl a/Chl b-ratio. Scenedesmus cells adapted to blue light of high spectral purity demonstrate, in comparison with those adapted to red light, a higher chlorophyll content, a higher ratio of chlorophyll to carotenoid and a much higher ratio of chlorophyll to cytochrome f. Regarding these parameters and the fluence-rate curves of photosynthesis, the blue light causes the same effects as low levels of white light. In contrast, the action of red light resembles rather that of high levels of white light. Blue-light-adapted Scenedesmus cells have a smaller Chl a to Chl b ratio, a faster half-rise time of fluorescence induction and more chlorophyll in the light-harvesting system than red-light-adapted cells, as shown in the electrophoretic profile of the pigment-protein complexes. Based on these results we propose a model for the adaptation of the photosynthetic apparatus of Scenedesmus to different levels and qualities of light. In this model low as compared with high levels of white light result in an increase in the number of photosystems per electron-transport chain, but not in an increase in the size of these photosystems. The same result is obtained by adaptation to blue light. The lack of sufficient Chl b formation in red-light-adapted cells results in a decrease in the light harvesting chlorophyll-protein complexes and a photosynthetic response like that found in cells adapted to high light levels. The findings reported here confirm our earlier results in comparing blue-and red-light adaptation of the photosynthetic apparatus with adaptation to low and high levels of white light, respectively.Abbreviations Chl chlorophyll - CP chlorophyll-protein complex - DCMU 3-(3,4-dichlorophenyl)-1,1 dimethyl-urea - LHCP light harvesting chlorophyll-protein complex - LiDS lithium dodecyl sulfate - PAGE polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis - PS photosystem     

Inhibition of photosynthetic reactions under water stress: interaction with light level

When the shrub Nerium oleander L., growing under full natural daylight outdoors, was subjected to water stress, stomatal conductance declined, and so did non-stomatal components of photosynthesis, including the CO₂-saturated rate of CO₂ uptake by intact leaves and the activity of electron transport by chloroplasts isolated from stressed plants. This inactivation of photosynthetic activity was accompanied by changes in the fluorescence characteristics determined at 77 K (-196°C) for the upper leaf surface and from isolated chloroplasts. The maximum (F _M) and the variable (F _V) fluorescence yield at 692 nm were strongly quenched but there was little effect on the instantaneous (F _O) fluorescence. There was a concomitant quenching of the maximum and variable fluorescence at 734 nm. These results indicate an inactivation of the primary photochemistry associated with photosystem II. The lower, naturally shaded surfaces of the same leaves were much less affected than the upper surfaces and water-stress treatment of plants kept in deep shade had little or no effect on the fluorescence characteristics of either surface, or of chloroplasts isolated from the water-stressed leaves. The effects of subjecting N. oleander plants, growing in full daylight, to water stress are indistinguishable from those resulting when plants, grown under a lower light regime, are exposed to full daylight (photoinhibition). Both kinds of stress evidently cause an inactivation of the primary photochemistry associated with photosystem II. The results indicate that water stress predisposes the leaves to photoinhibition. Recovery from this inhibition, following restoration of favorable water relations, is very slow, indicating that photoinhibition is an important component of the damage to the photosynthetic system that takes place when plants are exposed to water stress in the field. The underlying causes of this water-stress-induced susceptibility to photoinhibition are unknown; stomatal closure or elevated leaf temperature cannot explain the increased susceptibility.Abbreviations and symbols Chl chlorophyll - PFD photon flux area density - PSI, PSII photosystem I, II - F _M, F _O, F _V maximum, instantaneous, variable fluorescence emission - leaf water potential C.I.W.-D.P.B. Publication No. 775     

Non-photochemical quenching of chlorophyll fluorescence in Chlorella fusca acclimated to constant and dynamic light conditions

Non-photochemical quenching of chlorophyll fluorescence (NPQ) involves dissipation of light energy in the photosynthetic apparatus via a number of physiologically distinct processes. The relationships among NPQ, the (de)epoxidation state of the xanthophyll cycle pigments and state transitions was studied in the green alga Chlorella fusca, acquired from six differently light-acclimated continuous cultures. A 10 h light and 14 h darkness, periodicity was obeyed in all cultures. Three cultures received a high total daily irradiance, three others a low one. High and low irradiances were each dosed in three different modes at constant supply, with sine shape intensity modulation, or as a sine with superimposed oscillations. In the constant supply mode, but not for the sine and oscillating modes, high-light rendered a three-fold higher xantophyll cycle pigment content than low-light. Dynamic interconversion of xantophyll cycle pigments was restricted to high-light cultures. NPQ followed the kinetics of the light supply mode and was highest in high light cultures. In low-light cultures, NPQ correlated mainly to state transitions. These observations were supported by experiments with dithiothreithol-treated samples. The relative impact of xantophyll cycle operation and state transitions on NPQ in green algae from different light climates will be discussed with reference to higher plants. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Protein kinases and phosphatases involved in the acclimation of the photosynthetic apparatus to a changing light environment

Photosynthetic organisms are subjected to frequent changes in light quality and quantity and need to respond accordingly. These acclimatory processes are mediated to a large extent through thylakoid protein phosphorylation. Recently, two major thylakoid protein kinases have been identified and characterized. The Stt7/STN7 kinase is mainly involved in the phosphorylation of the LHCII antenna proteins and is required for state transitions. It is firmly associated with the cytochrome b₆f complex, and its activity is regulated by the redox state of the plastoquinone pool. The other kinase, Stl1/STN8, is responsible for the phosphorylation of the PSII core proteins. Using a reverse genetics approach, we have recently identified the chloroplast PPH1/TAP38 and PBPC protein phosphatases, which counteract the activity of STN7 and STN8 kinases, respectively. They belong to the PP2C-type phosphatase family and are conserved in land plants and algae. The picture that emerges from these studies is that of a complex regulatory network of chloroplast protein kinases and phosphatases that is involved in light acclimation, in maintenance of the plastoquinone redox poise under fluctuating light and in the adjustment to metabolic needs.     

光照强度驱动典型阴生植物三七的生理生态响应特征

为探究阴生植物三七(Panax notoginseng)对不同光照强度的生理生态响应特征,研究5种透光率(46.5% LT、21.8% LT、9.70% LT、5.10% LT、2.80% LT)下三七生理、形态和生长等各项指标的变化特征,并对其相关指标进行相关性、可塑性和主成分分析。结果表明:三七在高光(46.5% LT和21.8% LT)和低光(5.10% LT和2.80% LT)条件下各形态特征(株高、茎粗、单株叶面积)、生物量及相对生长速率(RGR)均有所降低;随着光照强度的降低,根生物量比(RMR)、最大净光合速率(P_n-max)、气孔导度(G_s)、光补偿点(LCP)和暗呼吸速率(R_d)都随之下降,而叶面积比(LAR)、比叶面积(SLA)、茎生物量比(SMR)和叶生物量比(LMR)却呈现升高的趋势。这些变化能够减少三七在高光下的光能捕获及消耗,而低光下的光能捕获和消耗则会得到加强。此外,阴生植物三七的形态特征表型可塑性指数均小于0.5,而光合生理(P_n-max、G_s、LCP、R_d)、LAR和根部生物量的表型可塑性指数则大于0.5,其可塑性较强,且P_n-max、G_s、LCP与RGR的相关系数分别高达0.581、0.558、0.574,这些结果表明光照强度驱动三七的响应特征主要为光合生理特性、LAR和根部生物量的变化。研究还发现三七在10%左右的透光率下生长发育较好。而在低光条件下,三七主要采取保守策略进行缓慢的碳获取和碳消耗,高光条件下则主要采取快速碳获取和碳消耗的冒险策略。研究阐明了三七对不同光照环境的响应策略,为三七的优质高效种植提供理论依据。     

Distribution of bacteriochlorophyll between the pigment-protein complexes of the sulfur photosynthetic bacterium <Emphasis Type="Italic">Allochromatium minutissimum</Emphasis> depending on light intensity at different temperatures

Variation of the distribution of bacteriochlorophyll a (BChl a) between external antenna (LH2) and core complexes (LH1 + RC) of the photosynthetic membrane of the sulfur bacterium Allochromatium minutissimum was studied at light intensities of 5 and 90 Wt/m² in the temperature range of 12–43°C. The increase of light intensity was shown to result in a 1.5-to 2-times increase of a photosynthetic unit (PSU). PSU sizes pass through a maximum depending on growth temperature, and the increase of light intensity (5 and 90 Wt/m²) results in a shift of the maximal PSU size to higher temperatures (15 and 20°C, respectively). In the narrow temperature interval of ～14–17°C, the ratio of light intensity to PSU size is typical of phototrophs: lower light intensity corresponds to larger PSU size. The pattern of PSU size change depending on light intensity was shown to differ at extreme growth temperatures (12°C and over 35°C). The comparison of Alc. minutissimum PSU size with the data on Rhodobacter capsulatus and Rhodopseudomonas palustris by measuring the effective optical absorption cross-section for the reaction of photoinhibition of respiration shows a two to four times greater size of light-harvesting antenna for Alc. minutissimum, which seems to correspond to the maximum possible limit for purple bacteria.     

Acclimation of Arabidopsis thaliana to the light environment: Changes in composition of the photosynthetic apparatus

Acclimation to changes in the light environment was investigated in Arabidopsis thaliana (L.) Heynh. cv. Landsberg erecta. Plants grown under four light regimes showed differences in their development, morphology, photosynthetic performance and in the composition of the photosynthetic apparatus. Plants grown under high light showed higher maximum rates of oxygen evolution and lower levels of light-harvesting complexes than their low light-grown counterparts; plants transferred to low light showed rapid changes in maximum photosynthetic rate and chlorophyll-a/b ratio as they became acclimated to the new environment. In contrast, plants grown under lights of differing spectral quality showed significant differences in the ratio of photosystem II to photosystem I. These changes are consistent with a model in which photosynthetic metabolism provides signals which regulate the composition of the thylakoid membrane.Abbreviations Aac1 gene encoding actin - Chl chlorophyll - F far-red-enriched light (R:FR = 0.72) - FR far-red light - H high light (400 mol · m^–2 · s^–1) - L low light (100 ml · m^–2 · s^–1) - LHCII light-harvesting complex of PSII - Lhcb genes encoding the proteins of LHCII - R red light - Rbcs genes encoding the small subunit of Rubisco - Rubisco ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase - W white light (R:FR = 1.40) This work was supported by Natural Environment Research Council Grant No. GR3/7571A. We would like to thank H. Smith (Botany Department, University of Leicester) and E. Murchie (University of Sheffield) for helpful discussions.     

Carotenoids in the eyespot apparatus of the flagellate green alga Spermatozopsis similis: Adaptation to the retinal-based photoreceptor

Isolated intact eyespot apparatuses, the photoreceptive organelles involved in blue-light-mediated photoresponses of flagellate green algae, were analyzed regarding their carotenoid composition. Carotenoids from the eyespot apparatuses of Spermatozopsis similis were identified by high-performance liquid chromatography, visible-light absorption spectra, mass spectroscopy and by ¹H-nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (carotenes), and compared with those of whole-cell extracts. Both extracts contained ,-carotene, ,-carotene (formerly -carotene), lycopene, lutein, zeaxanthin, violaxanthin and all-E-and 9-Z-neoxanthin. The relative carotenoid compositions, however, differed significantly. A twofold relative increase in the total carotene level was evident in the fraction enriched in eyespot apparatuses. This was mainly due to an increase in the monocyclic ,-carotene and the aliphatic lycopene, whereas the relative content of ,-carotene remained unchanged. On the other hand a relative decrease in the total xanthophyll content, especially of lutein and the epoxidic carotenoid neoxanthin, was observed in the eyespot apparatuses compared with the whole-cell extracts. The decrease of the latter resulted almost solely from a reduction of the 9-Z-rather than the all-E-isomer. The bulk of the carotenes is thought to be localized in the highly organized eyespot lipid globules, which act as a combined quarter-wave interference reflector and absorption screen for the photoreceptor in green algae. The enrichment of ,-carotene and lycopene in the eyespot apparatuses, extending the range of visible light absorption to longer wavelengths, represents an adaptation of the screen to the retinal-based photoreceptor of flagellate green algae and is one of the prerequisites for maximal directional sensitivity of the eyespot apparatus.Abbreviations ¹H-NMR nuclear magnetic resonance - IUPAC International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry - VIS visible absorption spectra This work was supported by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (G.K. and M.M.). M.G. was supported by a fellowship from the Norwegian Research Council of Science and Humanities.     

Very high light resistant mutants of Chlamydomonas reinhardtii: Responses of Photosystem II,nonphotochemical quenching and xanthophyll pigments to light and CO2

We have isolated very high light resistant nuclear mutants (VHL ^R) in Chlamydomonas reinhardtii, that grow in 1500–2000 mol photons m^–2 s^–1 (VHL) lethal to wildtype. Four nonallelic mutants have been characterized in terms of Photosystem II (PS II) function, nonphotochemical quenching (NPQ) and xanthophyll pigments in relation to acclimation and survival under light stress. In one class of VHL ^R mutants isolated from wild type (S4 and S9), VHL resistance was accompanied by slower PS II electron transfer, reduced connectivity between PS II centers and decreased PS II efficiency. These lesions in PS II function were already present in the herbicide resistant D1 mutant A251L (L ^*) from which another class of VHL ^R mutants (L4 and L30) were isolated, confirming that optimal PS II function was not critical for survival in very high light. Survival of all four VHL ^R mutants was independent of CO₂ availability, whereas photoprotective processes were not. The de-epoxidation state (DPS) of the xanthophyll cycle pigments in high light (HL, 600 mol photons m^–2 s^–1) was strongly depressed when all genotypes were grown in 5% CO₂. In S4 and S9 grown in air under HL and VHL, high DPS was well correlated with high NPQ. However when the same genotypes were grown in 5% CO₂, high DPS did not result in high NPQ, probably because high photosynthetic rates decreased thylakoid pH. Although high NPQ lowered the reduction state of PS II in air compared to 5% CO₂ at HL in wildtype, S4 and S9, this did not occur during growth of S4 and S9 in VHL. L ^* and VHL ^R mutants L4 and L30, also showed high DPS with low NPQ when grown air or 5% CO₂, possibly because they were unable to maintain sufficiently high pH due to constitutively impaired PS II electron transport. Although dissipation of excess photon energy through NPQ may contribute to VHL resistance, there is little evidence that the different genes conferring the VHL ^R phenotype affect this form of photoprotection. Rather, the decline of chlorophyll per biomass in all VHL ^R mutants grown under VHL suggests these genes may be involved in regulating antenna components and photosystem stoichiometries.This revised version was published online in October 2005 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Seeing green bacteria in a new light: genomics-enabled studies of the photosynthetic apparatus in green sulfur bacteria and filamentous anoxygenic phototrophic bacteria

Based upon their photosynthetic nature and the presence of a unique light-harvesting antenna structure, the chlorosome, the photosynthetic green bacteria are defined as a distinctive group in the Bacteria. However, members of the two taxa that comprise this group, the green sulfur bacteria (Chlorobi) and the filamentous anoxygenic phototrophic bacteria (Chloroflexales), are otherwise quite different, both physiologically and phylogenetically. This review summarizes how genome sequence information facilitated studies of the biosynthesis and function of the photosynthetic apparatus and the oxidation of inorganic sulfur compounds in two model organisms that represent these taxa, Chlorobium tepidum and Chloroflexus aurantiacus. The genes involved in bacteriochlorophyll (BChl) c and carotenoid biosynthesis in these two organisms were identified by sequence homology with known BChl a and carotenoid biosynthesis enzymes, gene cluster analysis in Cfx. aurantiacus, and gene inactivation studies in Chl. tepidum. Based on these results, BChl a and BChl c biosynthesis is similar in the two organisms, whereas carotenoid biosynthesis differs significantly. In agreement with its facultative anaerobic nature, Cfx. aurantiacus in some cases apparently produces structurally different enzymes for heme and BChl biosynthesis, in which one enzyme functions under anoxic conditions and the other performs the same reaction under oxic conditions. The Chl. tepidum mutants produced with modified BChl c and carotenoid species also allow the functions of these pigments to be studied in vivo.     

Acclimation of barley to changes in light intensity: chlorophyll organization

Barley seedlings (Hordeum vulgare L. cv. Boone) were grown at 20°C with a 16h/8h light/dark cycle of either high (H) intensity (550 mole m^-2 s^-1) or low (L) intensity (55 mole m^-2 s^-1) white light. Plants were transferred from high to low (H L) or low to high (L H) light intensity at various times from 4 to 8 d after leaf emergence from the soil. Primary leaves were harvested at the beginning of the photoperiod and a 3 cm apical segment removed for analysis. H control plants had greater chlorophyll (Chl) per leaf area and higher Chl a/b ratios than L controls. Analysis of Chl-protein complexes revealed that H and L plants had the same percentage of total Chl (62–65%) associated with Photosystem II (PS II), but that the organization of Chl within PS II was different. H plants contained lower levels of light-harvesting complex (LHC-II) and higher levels of the PS II complex CPa compared with L plants. Leaf Chl content and Chl organization within PS II were sensitive to changes in light intensity. In H L plants, leaf Chl content decreased, Chl a/b ratio decreased, and a redistribution of Chl from CPa to LHC-II occurred during acclimation to low light. Acclimation of L H plants to high light involved an increase in leaf Chl content, an increase in Chl a/b ratio, and a decrease in LHC-II. In contrast, the level of photosystem I related Chl-protein complexes (CP1 + CP1a) was similar in all light treatments. The light acclimation process occurred slowly over a period of 6 to 8 d in H L and L H plants.Abbreviations DMF dimethylformamide - H control plants grown under high light intensity - H L plants transferred from high to low light intensity - L control plants grown under low light intensity - L H plants transferred from low to high light intensity Cooperative investigations of the United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, and the North Carolina Agricultural Research Service, Raleigh, NC. Paper No. 11989 of the Journal Series of the North Carolina Agricultural Research Service, Raleigh, NC 27695-7643, USA.     

Stomatal and photosynthetic responses ofCichorium intybus leaves to sulfur dioxide treatment at different stages of plant development

Fifty-day-oldCichorium intybus Linn, plants were exposed to 1 ppm sulfur dioxide gas, 2 h per day for 7 consecutive days. Their leaves as well as those from the control plants were sampled at pre-flowering, flowering, and post-flowering stages to study their morphological, physiological, and biochemical responses to SO₂ stress. The number, dimensions, area, and biomass of leaves were less in the treated plants. Length and width of stomatal apertures on both epidermises were greater for leaves exposed to SO₂. The Stomata were longer on the adaxial epidermis, but shorter on the abaxial epidermis, except at the pre-flowering stage. Stomatal widths varied widely. Compared with the controls, the abaxial epidermis on treated leaves showed consistently lower stomatal densities as well as stomatal indices. This was also true for the adaxial epidermis during the post-flowering stage. The photosynthetic rate and stomatal conductance were reduced in the SO₂-exposed plants, but intercellular CO₂ concentrations increased at the pre-flowering stage and, subsequently, declined. Chlorophyll a, carotenoid, and total chlorophyll contents increased at the pre-flowering stage, and then decreased. The level of chlorophyllb was reduced throughout plant development compared with the untreated controls.     

Effect of light intensity on the growth of Azolla pinnata R. Brown at Ranchi,India

Light intensity has a profound effect on the growth of Azolla pinnata R. Brown. Fresh weight, dry weight and moisture content were maximum at 80 000 lux, but maximum frond area was attained in 50% light intensity. There was a wide variation in frond colour under different treatments. Frond texture, root characteristics and sporocarp production were also affected. The plant expresses heliophytic characteristics.     

Adaptation of the obligate CAM plant Clusia alata to light stress: Metabolic responses

In the Crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM) plants Clusia alata Triana and Planch., decarboxylation of citrate during phase III of CAM took place later than malate decarboxylation. The interdependence of these two CO₂ and NADPH sources is discussed. High light accelerated malate decarboxylation during the day and lowered citrate levels. Strong light stress also activated mechanisms that can protect the plant against oxidative stress. Upon transfer from low light (200 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹) to high light (650–740 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹), after 2 days, there was a transient increase of non-photochemical quenching (NPQ) of fluorescence of chlorophyll a of photosystem II. This indicated acute photoinhibition, which declined again after 7 days of exposure. Conversely, after 1 week exposure to high light, the mechanisms of interconversion of violaxanthin (V), antheraxanthin (A), zeaxanthin (Z) (epoxydation/de-epoxydation) were activated. This was accompanied by an increase in pigment levels at dawn and dusk.     

Phototrophic growth in the lumostat: a photo-bioreactor with on-line optimization of light intensity

A novel approach is described for the growth of phototrophic microorganisms in batch culture in laboratory-scale photo-bioreactors. Pure CO₂ is added separately to the aeration gas in a closed loop and the rate of photosynthetic activity is monitored continuously by recording the amount of CO₂ added in order to maintain constant pH. These activity measurements are used to control the intensity of illumination by varying the voltage applied to a bank of fluorescent tubes. The intensity of illumination is maintained at the value giving the maximal rate of photosynthesis while photoinhibition due to excess light is avoided. Since the light intensity received by the individual cells is maintained at the optimal value we term the device a lumostat.Measurements of photosynthetic activity by monitoring CO₂ addition were in excellent agreement with off-line measurements of cell carbon as long as corrections were made for diffusion loss through the walls of the tubing. Exponential growth of a thermophilic strain of the cyanobacteriumSynechococcus was obtained for 7 generations with maximum cell densities of 8 × 10⁷ cells mL^–1. The productivity of the lumostat is superior to that of batch cultures at any fixed light intensity.